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I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

Low-fat foods have frequently been advocated for people attempting to diet. Some people on diets to lose weight have discovered that they can satisfy their appetite with fewer calories by eating protein and carbohydrate instead of fat. Losing weight not only makes a person look good, it can reduce the danger of getting heart disease, diabetes andcancer. But the health hazards and benefits of fats, carbohydrates and proteins and their effectiveness for diets and dieting depend greatly on thetype of fat, carbohydrate and protein. (SeeMacronutrients, Dieting and Health)

Dietary fat by itself, not just the body fat it produces, can be ahealthhazard. A recent study has shown that reducing dietary fat from 36% of total calories to 26% of total calories can significantly lower blood pressure within 8 weeks[*2]. Saturated fat in the diet can increase the risk of heart disease from atherosclerosis (fatty plaques on blood vessel walls) by raising blood cholesterol. Unsaturated fat is more likely to formfree radicals by lipid peroxidation which can lead to cancer and may accelerate aging. Therefore, both saturatedand unsaturated fat can have health hazards. But every cell membrane in the body contains fat, and some of those fats cannot by synthesized making it essential to obtain these fats from diet.

Some nutritionists have recommended substituting mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fats for saturated fats, but another recommendation is to substitute protein and carbohydrate calories for fat calories[*3]. Fats (especially animal fats) are the primary vehicle by which pesticides enter the body. Some people might conclude that it would be a good idea to eliminateall fat from the diet. But eliminating all fat isnot a good idea.

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II. FATS IN THE BODY

Your body needs fats to function properly. Nearly half of the dry weight of the brain is fat, and a quarter of this is cholesterol. Cholesterol is an essential part of sex hormones, bile acids, Dvitamins and steroid hormones from the cortex of the adrenal gland among other important substances. Cholesterol does not need to be eaten, however, because the liver and other tissues can manufacture cholesterol from saturated fats. But too many saturated fats result in excessively high blood levels of cholesterol that can end up being deposited in atherosclerotic plaques on blood vessels, leading to cardiovascular disease. High blood cholesterol also depresses the immune system and thereby increases the incidence of cancer[*4]. Excessive blood cholesterol is more often caused by eating too many saturated fats than by eating cholesterol itself.

Studies in the United States and Northern Europe have established that the incidence of coronary heart disease mortality is nearly two-and-a-half times higher for people with the highest 25% of blood cholesterol compared with people with the lowest 25%. Yet the coronary heart disease mortality for the same cholesterol levels is only one-third as great in Japan or the Mediterranean[*6]. A person in west Scotland having the same blood cholesterol levels as a person in Catalonia, Spain is 8-times more likely to die of coronary heart disease. So although cholesterol is a factor in coronary mortality, it is not the only factor.

The term blood cholesterol is actually a reference to HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein), LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) and VLDL (Very Low-Density Lipoprotein). “Lipo” means “lipid”, a general term that refers to all biological fats and oils. HDL has been called “good cholesterol” because it can pick up excess fats and carry them back to the liver. LDL (and especially VLDL) has been called “bad cholesterol” because it can become so overloaded with fats that the fats are dropped on blood vessel walls rather than carried to the cells where they are needed. LDL could also be called “good”, because LDL supplies cells with fats needed for structure and function. In fact, LDL is the main carrier of oil-soluble substances (likeVitaminE) to body cells[*5]. LDL-cholesterol is just HDL-cholesterol with a larger load of surrounding fat. Exercise creates HDL from LDL by removing fat from LDL for use as energy.

Oxidation of LDL is what causes cholesterol to be deposited in plaque on blood vessel walls[*5]. The vulnerability of LDL cholesterol to oxidation depends on both the quantity ofantioxidants in the blood and on the type of fatty acid in the LDL. Fruits, vegetables and supplements (especially VitaminE with VitaminC) will reduce LDL oxidation. The dietary fat that is most vulnerable to oxidation is linoleic acid[*7]. High blood levels of homocysteine thiolactone cause LDL to aggregate. Oxidized, aggregated LDL is readily attacked by macrophages to form atherosclerotic plaques on blood vessel walls[*8].

Aside from cholesterol, most other fat in the body is constructed from what is known asfatty acids. A fatty acid is a long straight chain of carbon atoms (studded with hydrogen atoms) that has an acid group (carboxylic acid) at one end (the water-soluble end). The rest of the fatty acid is oil-soluble, with a methyl group at the other end. Fatty acids in the body usually exist unattached to any other molecule (free fatty acids), attached to glycerol in groups of three (triglycerides), or attached to phosphatidic acid molecules (phospholipids).

Fatty acids differ from one another not only by the number of carbons in their chain, but by the number of double-bonds between the carbon atoms. Fatty acids with only single-bonds are calledsaturated because they are “saturated” with as many hydrogen atoms as they can carry. Fatty acids with only one double-bond are calledmono-unsaturated. And fatty acids with more than one double-bond are calledpoly-unsaturated.

Polyunsaturated fats have often been recommended to reduce coronary heart disease[*9]. But all saturated fats do not have the same effect on cholesterol synthesis in the liver. Only the saturated fats of chain-length 12, 14 and 16 (lauric acid, myristic acid and palmitic acid) have been shown to elevate blood cholesterol. Of these, myristic acid (high in coconut and palm oil) elevates cholesterol the most[*10]. Stearic acid (18-carbon, saturated) has been shown to lower cholesterol by 21% even more than oleic acid (18-carbon, mono-unsaturated) which lowers LDL by 15%[*11].

Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be a health hazard because carbon-carbon double bonds can lead to free-radical formation and reactions with oxygen to form unstable lipid peroxide compounds containing the same unstable oxygen-oxygen bond found in hydrogen peroxide. Lipid peroxidation and free radicals can cause cancer and may accelerate aging. High rates of lung cancer among women in China have been associated with lipid peroxidized oils in fumes from cooking polyunsaturated vegetable oils in a wok[*12]. Hot oil in open air is subject to much lipid peroxidation. Fast-food restaurants that fry foods in the same oil all day serve lots of lipid peroxides to their customers.

Polyunsaturated “cis” fatty acids can be beneficial in cell membranes by preventing the tight packing of fatty acids in membranes thereby making the membranes more “fluid”. Membrane fluidity is important for optimal function of most cells in the body. But membrane fluidity is especially important on portions of cells that act as receptors for hormones or neurotransmitters. The typical North American eats three times as much saturated fat as unsaturated fat, yet animal experiments show that insulin receptor responsiveness is substantially improved when dietary unsaturated fat is greater than saturated fat[*13]. With aging, however, cell membrane fluidity declines in part because of increasing amount of cholesterol in the membranes, but more importantly because of free-radical oxidation[*14].Antioxidants that protect cell membranes, like VitaminE, are extremely valuable in opposing membrane oxidation.

2-BUTANE ISOMERS

CIS ISOMER	TRANS ISOMER

Fatty acid double-bonds come in two configurations known ascis (carbon chains on the same side of a double-bond) andtrans (carbon chains on the opposite side of a double-bond). Most of the double-bonds made by biological systems have thecis configuration. It is thecis configuration of unsaturated fatty acids that prevents tight packing of fatty acids in membranes, and hence increases membrane fluidity.

Saturated fats (like butter or lard) and fatty acids withtrans double-bonds (like margarine) tend to be solids at room temperature, whereas natural fatty acids withcis double-bonds (like vegetable oils) tend to be liquids. By artificially hydrogenating vegetable oils, the food processing industry reduces the number of double bonds and causes the formation oftrans fatty acids. Hydrogenation results in margarines that are more solid and less vulnerable to rancidity. Hydrogenation results in peanut butter with a trans-fat-containing oil that does not separate from the peanut paste. But whentrans fatty acids are incorporated into cell membranes, the membrane fluidity is reduced and the cells do not function as well. Not alltrans fatty acids in the diet are due to food processing. For example, natural butter is 5%trans fat.

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III. THE CHEMISTRY OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

The human body can manufacture most of the fats it needs, including cholesterol, saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids. But there are two fatty acids which cannot be manufactured in the body, and which must be obtained from dietary sources:linoleic acid andalpha-linolenic acid. These are theessential fatty acids. Linoleic acid is an 18-carbon chain with 2double-bonds, whereas alpha-linolenic acid is an 18-carbon chain with 3double-bonds. The position of double-bonds in a fatty acid is critical to function, and this is especially true of double-bonds close to the methyl end. For long-chain fatty acids, the body’s enzymes cannot add double-bonds near the methyl end.

The configuration (geometry) at the double bond can be eithercis (adjacent hydrogen atoms on the same side of the molecule) ortrans (adjacent atoms on the opposite side). Unsaturated fatty acids in thetrans configuration are more linear, more rigid and have a higher melting-point. The distinctiveness ofcis &trans fatty acids merit unique names:cis-9-octadecanoic acid isoleic acid, whereastrans-9-octadecanoic acid iselaidic acid. (For more ontrans fatty acids, see my essay Are Trans-Fatty Acids a Health Hazard?.)

The body cannot make an omega‚àí3 or omega‚àí6 fatty acid because human metabolism cannot add a double-bond to a fatty acid that is more than 9carbons away from the delta end. For the same reason, the body cannot convert an omega‚àí3 to an omega‚àí6 fatty acid, or vice-versa. But the body can make omega‚àí9 fatty acids. And the body can add more double-bonds closer to the delta end of omega‚àí3 and omega‚àí6 fatty acids.

Two distinct families of essential fatty acids exist in the human body:the omega‚àí3 family and omega‚àí6 family. Theomega‚àí3 family comes from alpha-linolenic acid, and theomega‚àí6 family comes from linoleic acid. Each family is the result of increasing chain length and of forming double-bonds from one of these two essential fatty acids. The two families compete for the same enzymes for forming double bonds (desaturase enzymes) and enzymes for lengthening the carbon chain (elongase enzymes). Elongase enzymes always add carbon atoms (in pairs) to the delta end of the fatty acid.

The Production of EFA Derivatives

Forming a double-bond at the 9th carbon of linoleic acid results ingamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Likealpha-linolenic acid, gamma-linolenic acid has 3double-bonds. But gamma-linolenic acid is an omega‚àí6, whereas alpha-linolenic is an omega‚àí3 fatty acid. The words “alpha” and “gamma” in this case have no chemical meaning. The confusing terms “alpha-linolenic” and “gamma-linolenic” are common names, not scientific names, and are meaningless in the context of current scientific naming conventions.

Another important product of linoleic acid isarachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is a 20-carbon omega‚àí6 fatty acid with 4 double-bonds. Arachidonic acid, in turn, gives rise to a whole group of 20-carbon, biologically-important substances known as theeicosanoids (eicosa- is Greek for “20″), including prostaglandins, thromboxanes, lipoxins and leukotrienes which affect immunity, inflammation and blood clotting (among other actions). But omega‚àí3 fatty acids can also produce eicosanoids.

Noteworthy members of the omega‚àí3 family of fatty acids manufactured from alpha-linolenic acid areEicosaPentaenoic Acid(EPA) andDocasaHexaenoic Acid (DHA). A pentaenoic acid has 5 double-bonds. A hexaenoic acid has 6double-bonds. EPA is a 20-carbon chain fatty acid, whereas DHA is a 22-carbon chain fatty acid. Like arachidonic acid, EPA gives rise to its own class of eicosanoids. The EPA-generated eicosanoids are in the omega‚àí3 family, as distinct from the omega‚àí6 eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid.

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IV. ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS IN THE DIET

Alpha-linolenic acid, the primary dietary source of omega‚àí3 fatty acids in the diet, is frequently found in green leaves. The leaves and seeds of the perilla plant (widely eaten in Japan, Korea and India) are the richest plant source of alpha-linolenic acid, although linseed oil is also a rich source. Fish oil contains very little alpha-linolenic acid, but is rich in the omega‚àí3 derivatives EPA and DHA. Fish are at the top of a food chain based on phytoplankton (algae) that manufacture large amounts of EPA and DHA. Nonetheless, fish can be high in toxic methylmercury. (For more information, see my essay Is Mercury in Fish a Health Hazard?)

It has been estimated that thousands of years ago the diet of human hunter-gatherers consisted of approximately equal parts of omega‚àí3 and omega‚àí6 essential fatty acids[*15]. Since the beginning of agriculture ten thousand years ago there has been a steady increase in omega‚àí6 at the expense of omega‚àí3 fat in the human diet. This process accelerated about 50 years ago as cattle began to be fed increasingly on grains rather than grass. Recommendations by nutritionists to eat margarine rather than butter (polyunsaturated rather than saturated fats) increased the trend toward omega‚àí6 and trans fat consumption. Currently, the ratio of omega‚àí6 to omega‚àí3 fatty acids in the American diet is 7‚àíto‚àí1 or more. There are good reasons to believe that this imbalanced essential fatty acid ratio has led to increased cancer, heart disease, allergies, diabetes and other afflictions. Much of the reason for this lies in the membranes of our cells.

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V. ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS IN CELL MEMBRANES

Phospholipids in Cell Membranes

Different cells have different quantities of phospholipid in their membranes. Gray matter in the brain is nearly 70% phospholipid, whereas brain white matter is less than half phospholipid because of high concentrations of glycolipid (sugar-fat). There is much variation in the amounts and kinds of phospholipid in membranes. Brain gray matter is 30% phosphatidylcholine whereas brain white matter is 10% phosphatidylcholine. The inner layer of neuron membranes primarily contain phosphatidylethanolamine & phosphatidylserine, whereas in the outer layer phosphatidylcholine & sphingomyelin predominate.

Mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum membranes are both 40% phosphatidylcholine. But mitochondrial membranes are also 35% phosphatidylethanolamine, whereas endoplasmic reticulum membrane is about 17% phosphatidylethanolamine.

Cells also vary considerably in the kinds of fatty acids attached to phosphatidic acid. In gray matter cell membranes, the fatty acids in the middle position of phospholipids are composed of carbon chains that are longer and more unsaturated than fatty acids found in the membrane phospholipids of most other cells. Fatty acids that are long and highly unsaturated increase membrane fluidity and functionality, which is why DHA and arachidonic acid are highly concentrated in the phospholipids of neuron synapses. Unsaturated fatty acids are also important for membrane activity at the site of hormone receptors. Insulin resistance in adult-onset diabetes is associated with fewer membrane long-chain unsaturated fatty acids due to impaired desaturase and elongase enzyme function[*16].

The alcohol portion of a phospholipid protrudes away from the membrane, whereas the two fatty acids jut into the membrane. The middle fatty acid (in the second position) is usually unsaturated (like DHA or arachidonic acid) whereas the end fatty acid (in the first position) is usually saturated (like stearic acid). Each of the 3groups attached to the glycerol backbone has a special enzyme that can separate the group from the backbone.PhospholipaseA₁ enzyme attacks the attachment of the first fatty acid,PhospholipaseA₂ attacks the attachment of the middle fatty acid andPhospholipaseD attacks the alcohol attachment.PhospholipaseC which is a major toxin secreted by bacteria releases 1,2-DiAcylGlycerol(DAG) along with a phosphoryl base.

Phospholipase Enzymes in Cell Membranes

Frequently the unsaturated fatty acid stored in the second position of a cell membrane will be arachidonic acid, EPA or DHA (especially in the neurons). The release of arachidonic acid or EPA from cell membranes by PhospholipaseA₂ allows the enzymes lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase to form biologically active eicosanoids likeprostaglandins (PGZs, first isolated inprostategland),thromboxanes (TXZs, first isolated inthrombocytes) andleucotrienes (LTZs, first isolated inleucocytes). These eicosanoids can be compared to hormones, except that unlike hormones they are destroyed by local enzymes within seconds or minutes after formation. This limits the activities of eicosanoids to the area where they were released.

Having cell membranes contain fatty acids that can form the hormone-like eicosanoids gives the body the capacity to produce quick, localized action in almost any tissue or organ. The most general need for rapid, local action is the response to trauma. Therefore, eicosanoids are most often concerned with clotting, inflammation and the initiation of immune defense.

Some membrane phospholipids, such as the phosphatidylinositols, function to convert activity at cell surface G-protein-coupled receptors into intracellular signals. Hydrolysis by phospholipaseC and phospholipaseD produce thesecond messengers (intracellular messengers)DiAcylGlycerol(DAG) [which stimulates Protein KinaseC(PKC)] andInositol triPhosphate(IP₃) [which causes intracellular release of calcium]. Activated PKC concentrates in the plasma membrane where it phosphorylates membrane proteins of receptors and ion-channels to inhibit their function (negative feedback). Nuclear FactorkappaB (NF‚àíŒ∫B) activated by PKC binds to DNA promoters & enhancers of inflammatory cytokines, among other genes. IP₃ binds to the endoplasmic reticulum, releasing calcium stored in that location. DAG can be further hydrolysed by PhospholipaseA₂ to release more arachidonic acid.Ethanol increases PhospholipaseA₂ activity, increasing oxidative stress.

Three categories ofPhosphoLipaseA₂ (PLA₂) are recognized:secretory PLA₂ (sPLA₂),cytoplasmic PLA₂ (cPLA₂) andCa²⁺-independent PLA₂ (iPLA₂). The cPLA₂ is activated by Ca²⁺ to a much greater extent than sPLA₂. Whereas sPLA₂ is more prominent in inflammatory disease, cPLA₂ is more associated withoxidative free radical damage. The cPLA₂ shows a marked preference for hydrolyzing oxidized arachidonic acid in cell membranes, which may be important for membrane maintenance when sufficient ATP is available to synthesize and insert fresh arachidonic acid into membranes. Arachidonic acid is a particularly common constituent of brain neuron membranes and the massive release of arachidonic acid in cerebral cortexischemia/reperfusion plays a significant role in exacerbating ischemic/reperfusion damage. The activity of cPLA₂ on inner mitochondrial membranes can also be exacerbated under conditions of high oxidative stress.

There are three series of the prostaglandin and thromboxane eicosanoids:one derived from DGLA (series1), one derived from arachidonic acid (series2) and one derived from EPA(series3). The series number indicates the number of double-bonds in the prostaglandin or thromboxane. Series1 prostaglandins are not as common in the body as series 2or3 in part because DGLA is not plentiful in many tissues. Series2 predominates over series3 for at least three reasons:(1)arachidonic acid is more readily released from cell membranes than EPA, (2)arachidonic acid reacts far more avidly with cyclo-oxygenase enzyme than does EPA and (3)contemporary Western diets contain large amount of linoleic acid, which results in large amounts of arachidonic acid in cell membranes. The predominance of arachidonic acid eicosanoids over EPA-eicosanoids due to excessively high dietary omega‚àí6 (compared to omega‚àí3) is at the root of many modern health problems, only some of which are concerned with the immune system.

Eicosanoid Abbreviations

Series-2 Eicosanoids (from Arachidonic Acid)

Series-3 Eicosanoids (from EPA)

Cyclooxygenases (COXs) can be divided intoCOX-1 (present at constant levels in most cells & tissues) andCOX-2 (normally absent from most cells, but rapidly rising to high levels in response to growth factors, cytokines, hypoxia, toxins and other stimuli). COX-1 is regarded as a “housekeeping” enzyme responsible for such functions as maintaining gastrointestinal mucosal integrity and regulation of kidney blood flow. COX-2 expression in response to inflammation & mitogens may lead to cancer. COX-2 enhances the formation of prostaglandins that mediate pain & inflammation. The attempts to create drugs that specifically inhibit COX-2 without inhibiting COX-1 (which can result in gastrointestinal bleeding) is based on this simplification[BIOCHEMICAL PHARMACOLOGY 65:153-159 (2003)].

Unlike COXs, which are active in most body cells,lipogenase enzyme is primarily active in cells of the immune system. Lipogenase creates hydroperoxides from polyunsaturated fatty acids by an insertion of molecular oxygen. Both arachidonic acid(omega‚àí6) and EPA(omega‚àí3) can be acted-on by lipoxygenase enzyme, rather than by cyclooxygenase resulting in leucotrienes(LTZs) rather than the prostaglandins(PGZs) & thromboxanes(TXZs) produced by cycloxoygenase. Lipoxygenase produces series4 leucotrienes from arachidonic acid or series5 leucotrienes from EicosaPentoic Acid(EPA). Lipoxygenase is primarily found in granulocytes.HydroxyPeroxyEicosaTetraEnoates(HPETEs) are reactive hydroperoxides which can contribute to cellular damage in atherosclerosis[THE JOURNAL OF CLINICAL INVESTIGATION 111(8):1107-1113(2003)]. HPETEs like other organic hydroperoxides(ROOH) can lead to lipid peroxidation byFenton-like reactions.

Arachidonic Acid conversion to Leukotrienes via HPETEs

Ring Structures

Arachidonic acid oxidized in the membranes of neurons which has been subsequently liberated by phospholipase results in enzymatic products known asisoeicosanoids because they are isomers of normal eicosanoids.Isoprostanes (isomers of cyclooxygenase-derived prostaglandins) and particularlyF₂-isoprostanes (isomers of prostaglandinF_2Œ±) have attracted special interest because they are chemically stable and can be sensitively measured using mass spectrometry. F₂-isoprostanes have been used to quantify lipid peroxidation in atherosclerotic plaques, in the brains ofAlzheimer’s Disease patients and in the urine of smokers & myocardial infarction patients. Analogous F-ring oxidized isomers of DHA breakdown products known asF₄-neuroprostanes have been isolated in elevated quantity in both cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue of Alzheimer’s Disease patients[CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR LIFE SCIENCES 59:808-820 (2002)].

Normal F-Ring Prostaglandin	F2-isoprostanes

Cell membrane enzyme activity is significantly influenced by membrane fatty acid composition. Rats fed unsaturated fats show highersodium-potassium pump activity than rats fed saturated fats[NEUROCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL; Srinivasarao,P; 31(6):789-794 (1997)]. Increasing membrane DHA content is a mechanism for cold adaptation in fish. But the longer lifespan of birds compared to similar-sized mammals is attributed to greater saturated fat content in membranes (lower peroxidizability)[JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY; Hulbert,AJ; 206(Pt14):2303-2311 (2003)].

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VI. FATS FOR IMMUNITY

The eicosanoids produced from arachidonic acid cause a stronger inflammatory response than the eicosanoids from EPA or DGLA. The arachidonic acid products LeukoTrieneB4 (LTB₄) and ProstaGlandinE2 (PGE₂) are powerful promoters of inflammation. LTB₄ is only formed in granulocytes subject to stimuli favoring action by 5-lipoxygenase activating protein[ARCHIVES OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 356(1):71-76 (1998)]. Both PGE₂ & LTB₄ increases tissue swelling (edema) by making the vascular endothelium more leaky. LTB₄ stimulates superoxide production by neutrophils, activates Natural Killer cells and powerfully attracts inflammatory leukocytes. PGE₂ increases sensitivity to pain, raises temperature and increases the formation of the allergic antibody ImmunoglobulinE(IgE)[*17]. Aspirin irreversibly blocks the enzymecyclo-oxygenase, which prevents arachidonic acid from being converted to prostaglandin thereby limiting inflammation and pain. Gamma-tocopherol (the major form ofVitaminE in food, in contrast to alpha-tocopherol, which is the major form of VitaminE in supplement pills) also blocks cyclo-oxygenase and reduces proinflammatory PGE₂ & LTB₄ formation[FASEB JOURNAL 17:816-822 (2003)].

Elevated body temperature, increased sensitivity to pain, inflammation and allergic reactions are important body defense mechanisms. Inflammation reduces the spread of infection. Elevated body temperature can kill bacteria and viruses. Increased sensitivity to pain reduces movement of injured body parts, preventing injury from getting worse. But when taken to an extreme, inflammatory reactions can result in auto-immune disease, septic shock, asthma and even fatal anaphylactic shock. Chronic inflammation of the pancreas, colon and other organs increase the risk ofcancer in those organs. The increasing incidence of allergies and seasonal asthmas in modern society has been attributed to increased levels of the arachidonic acid eicosanoid LTB₄ due to excessively high dietary omega‚àí6 intake relative to omega‚àí3[*18].

Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA) has been shown to be effective against the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis in a number of studies. Although one might expect that GLA could lead to the formation of arachidonic acid’s pro-inflammatory eicosanoids, there is instead a production of the anti-inflammatory prostaglandin PGE₁ of the 1‚àíseries[*19,*20]. It may be that rheumatoid arthritis patients suffer from impaired function of desaturase enzymes, preventing arachidonic acid formation. In ulcerative colitis, an inflammatory condition in which desaturase enzymes are normal, both omega‚àí3 oils from fish and perilla have been used for treatment[*21].

Feeding laboratory animals diets rich in omega‚àí3 fatty acids (linseed or fish oil) reduces Natural Killer cell and cytotoxic T‚àílymphocyte activity[*22], but stimulates the more antigen-specific immunoglobulins IgM and IgG[*17]. Innate immune response, although closely tied to inflammation can be separated from inflammation to some extent. One experiment showed that both fish oil and safflower oil reduced the secretion of Interleukin-6 (a cytokine that activates lymphocyte immune-cells and increases antibody production), but that only fish oil inhibited the secretion of Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (a cytokine that increases fever, shock and blood vessel permeability)[*23].

As a first-line defense against infection, the inflammatory/innate-immunity response can sometimes mean the difference between life and death. Adding fish oil (which contains both DHA and EPA) to the diet of rats increased the likelihood that the rats would die when subjected to bacterial infection[*24]. Mixtures of DHA and EPA strongly reduce Natural Killer and Lymphocyte Activated cells[*25]. But immune suppression appears to be more due to EPA than to DHA[*22]. In fact, when total fat intake is low, DHA shows no inhibition of immune system function, even though about 9% of DHA is converted back to EPA[*26]. The omega‚àí6 to omega‚àí3 proportions may also determine immune suppression. An experiment, using a mixture of safflower oil and fish oil showed no immunosuppressive effect in rats when the omega‚àí6 to omega‚àí3 ratio was approximately 2‚àíto‚àí1[*23].

Cells of the immune system (like T-Cells, B-Cells and Macrophages) have membranes that are particularly rich in long-chain unsaturated fatty acids (such as arachidonic acid or EPA). Unlike prostaglandins, which are formed from most cells of the body, leukotrienes are made predominantly by polymorphonucleocytic leucocytes, macrophages and mast cells.

Because immune system cells are so rich in arachidonic acid and EPA (and also because of their mobility and functions) immune system cells are more vulnerable tofree-radical oxidation than other cells. The nutrients that most profoundly improve immune function are vitaminC, vitaminE,selenium, glutathione and zinc[*27]. All of these nutrients areantioxidants, although zinc’s effects are more due to direct actions on immune cell function than due to its anti-oxidant properties[*28].VitaminE opposes some, but not all of the increased lipid peroxidation and immune suppression seen in essential fatty acid supplementation[*29]. VitaminE promotes immune function by reducing PGE₂ synthesis and thus increasing T-cell proliferation, IL-2 production and antibody production, while reducing IL-6 production. By scavenging the hydroperoxide necessary for COX activity, VitaminE opposes the increase in PGE₂ formation that is typically seen in aging[AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY; Wu,D; 275(3Pt1):C661-C668 (1998)]. PGE₂ is known to suppress lymphocyte proliferation, to suppress synthesis of chemical factors (lymphokines) influencing the immune system and to contribute to the auto-immune diseases that increase with aging[*30].

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VII. FATS AGAINST CANCER

High fat diets are well-known to be associated with certain kinds of cancers, including breast cancer, in particular[*31]. Although butterfat stimulates breast cancer when compared with a fat-free diet, safflower oil margarine (linoleic acid, an omega‚àí6) has been shown to induce breast cancer much more strongly[*6]. Linoleic acid is the fat that most frequently is associated with cancer, whereas omega‚àí3 fatty acids like DHA and perilla-oil suppress cancer[*32,*33]. It has been theorized that linoleic acid causes cancer by chronic overproduction of the inflammatory arachidonic acid eicosanoids, which stimulate the proliferation of mutated cells[*6]. Omega‚àí3 fatty acids reduce cancer risk by markedly inhibiting Activator Protein1(AP‚àí1), a transcription factor which promotes cancerous proliferation and metastasis. Omega‚àí6 fatty acids promote cancer by blocking omega‚àí3 activity[PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (USA); Liu,G; 98(13): 7510-7515 (2001)].

PGE₂ resulting from COX-2 enzyme is found in high levels in colorectal carcinomas where the prostaglandin promotes growth through transactivation of epithelial growth factor receptor signalling. PGE₂ also induces expression of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor(VEGF) in colon cancer cells, resulting in the neoangiogenesis (new blood vessels) required by growing tumors[JOURNAL OF CLINICAL INVESTIGATION; Williams,CS; 105(11):1589-1594 (2000)]. Nitric oxide is a regulator of COX-2 expression in the colon, and the phytochemicalcurcumin (an inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthetase found in curry) has been shown to reduce pre-cancerous colon lesions by 45%[CARCINOGENESIS; Rao,CV; 20(4):641-644 (1999)].

Although too much linoleic acid can increase the risk of cancer, a form of linoleic acid in which the double-bonds are closer together known asConjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) actually reduces cancer risk. CLA has been shown to significantly inhibit prostate cancer proliferation[*34] and breast cancer formation[*35] in experimental animals. Large quantities of CLA are not needed since the maximum anti-cancer effect is seen when CLA is no more than 1% of calories. There is controversy over whether CLA is ananti-oxidant. Some researchers who believe that CLA is not an anti-oxidant believe that CLA’s effects are due to its blockage of arachidonic acid formation[*36,*37]. CLA has also been shown to reduce atherosclerosis in rabbits[*38]. The best dietary sources of CLA are the food products of ruminant animals (ie, animals that “ruminate” their food by chewing a cud, like cows or deer), such as beef, milk, yoghurt and cheese.

For technical details about the nature of cancer (and methods of prevention) see my essayCancer.

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VIII. FATS AGAINST DIABETES AND THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM

Alcoholics suffer from disturbances of fat metabolism, notably in the liver. The liver is the most active site of delta-6-desaturase activity in the body. In fact, many (if not most) cells in the body have no delta-6-desaturase enzymes and are dependent upon the liver for omega‚àí3/omega‚àí6 desaturase/elongase products. Neuropathy and other conditions resulting from desaturase dysfunction in alcoholics are benefitted by both evening primrose oil and fish oil in combination[*43]. Arachidonic acid deficiency is the most serious problem for alcoholics, however, so evening primrose oil seems to be the best therapy[*44].

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IX. FATS FOR THE BRAIN

The influence of essential fatty acid supplement on brain membrane content declines with maturity, however. Adult cell membrane content of DHA and arachidonic acid is only slowly altered by diet or supplement. If dietary intake of essential fatty acid is low, the body will sacrifice essential fatty acid content of cell membranes outside the brain before neurons are affected. A study of elderly men, however, showed greater cognitive impairment among those with a history of high dietary linoleic acid compared with controls, whereas those with high fish consumption showed reduced cognitive decline[*57]. One experiment showed promotion of neuron growth by DHA and inhibition by arachidonic acid[*58]. But an experiment on adult mice showed that excessively high supplements of DHA without arachidonic acid supplementation can impair physical and cognitive performance[*59]. Arachidonic acid may facilitate LTP-type learning in the hippocampus of the brain[*51].

Measurements of fatty acid content of brain cell (neuron) membranes show decreased DHA with aging. Since DHA is particularly concentrated in synaptic membranes, lowered DHA levels may contribute to declining brain function. DHA is also reduced when the brains of rats are experimentally exposed to high oxygen levels suggesting that free-radical oxidation is causing the depletion in both cases. VitaminE treatment protected the rats from neuron damage from the oxygen. This suggests that VitaminE may be important for prevention of neurodegeneration in humans[*63]. (For more detail about DHA see my essay DHA for Hearts and Minds).

Arachidonic acid can be released from cell membranes exposed toneurotransmitters, neuromodulators and neurohormones. The release of arachidonic acid can directly modify neuron excitability by binding with hydrophobic binding sites of ion channels or can be metabolized to eicosanoids that ineract with neuronal eicosanoid receptors to have asecond messenger effect.

Arachidonic acid is known toworsen brain damage during stroke and other conditions of oxygen depletion. AlthoughVitaminE reduces the toxic effects of arachidonic acid in hypoxic conditions,N-Acetyl-Cysteine (NAC, a nutrient which increases glutathione synthesis) completely blocks the arachidonic acid toxicity. Because NAC is not an effectiveanti-oxidant against superoxide, the arachidonic acid toxicity must be due to lipid peroxidation[*51].

Since the 1950s it has been believed that schizophrenia is caused by brain disturbances involving the neurotransmitter dopamine. Recently it has been observed that many schizophrenics have reduced levels of DHA and arachidonic acid and a sizable proportion of these patients do not flush red on 200mg doses of niacin. DHA is known to be highly concentrated in synapses, suggesting that reduced sensitivity to dopamine due to low levels of DHA and arachidonic acid in dopamine receptors may be a more fundamental cause of schizophrenia than dopamine deficiency[*64].

As brain cell membranes age, the ratio of cholesterol to phospholipid increases and membrane fluidity decreases. A similar effect is seen in brains which are becoming tolerant to ethyl alcohol (beverage alcohol). Experiments exposing rats to ethyl alcohol showed tissue depletion of DHA and arachidonic acid, particularly in the liver[*65,*66]. Phosphatidylethanolamine in the cerebral cortex gray matter of the brains of alcoholics show lower levels of DHA and arachidonic acid[*67]. Methionine (or S-adenosylmethionine, SAM) has reversed the DHA and arachidonic acid depletion in the liver following alcohol treatment of rats[*66]. Oxidized DHA and arachidonic acid enzyme products (isoprostanes and neuroprostanes) are both markedly eleveated in the cerebrospinal fluid ofAlzheimer’s Disease patients as compared to age-matched controls. Lipid peroxidation would be an expected consequence of inflammatory processes associated with Alzheimer’s Disease, but could also be indicative of oxidation as a cause of the disease.

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X. FATS FOR THE HEART

Oxidative stress is known to contribute to atherosclerosis, but it is usually attributed to oxidation of LDL-cholesterol, causing it to adhere to artery walls. Some oxidative effect is also due to vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation induced by arachidonic acid derived eicosanoids functioning as transcription factors. The arachidonic acid lipoxygenase metabolites 12-HPETE and 15-HPETE act as mitogens by increasing AP-1(ActivatorProtein-1) transcription factor activity[JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY; Rao,GN; 271(44):27760-27764 (1996)].

Fish oil has been shown to lower LDL-cholesterol by about 13%[*70], to lower blood pressure[*71], and to dramatically lower blood triglycerides[*72,*73]. The effect on triglycerides, in particular, appears to be due to EPA and DHA, because flaxseed (ie, linseed oil, which is over 50% alpha-linolenic acid) did not lower triglycerides. More careful analysis has established that DHA alone has no effect on blood triglycerides, but that EPA alone is capable of lowering blood triglycerides by about 30%[*74]. Purified DHA was shown to lower blood pressure and reduce blood viscosity. The evidence indicated that DHA increases red blood cell membrane fluidity, thereby increasing the deformability of the blood cells so that they can move through capillaries more easily and thus lower blood viscosity and blood pressure[*75].

High fasting blood insulin concentrations has been determined to be an independent risk factor for ischemic heart disease[*76]. The fatty acid content of muscle membranes is critical in determining insulin sensitivity. A high-fat diet can increase insulin resistance, but both dietary omega‚àí3 and omega‚àí6 fatty acids can increase membrane fluidity and thereby improve insulin sensitivity[*77].

The protective effect of fish oil against cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats) has been strikingly illustrated by two similar experiments, one performed on rats[*78] and the other on marmoset monkeys[*79]. Middle-aged animals were fed sheep fat (saturated fat), sunflower seed oil (omega‚àí6) or fish oil (omega‚àí3) for 12 weeks (for rats) or for 24-30 months (for monkeys). With both rats and monkeys arrhythmia was produced in over 40% of the animals fed sheep fat, roughly 10% of the animals fed safflower oil and in none of the animals who were fed fish oil.

Phosphatidylethanolamine from monkey heart tissue showed 5times more (over 25% total) DHA in the fish-oil fed monkeys than in the other two groups. EPA accounted for over 6% of the fatty acid phosphatidylethanolamine of fish-oil fed monkeys, and was undetectable in the other two groups. A similar experiment on rats using purified DHA and purified EPA, rather than fish-oil, indicated that DHA is responsible for most of the anti-arrhythmic effect[*80]. It is the DHA release from membrane breakdown, rather than DHA in the bloodstream, which is protective[*81]. Moreover, DHA in the membrane increases the efficiency of the heart cyclic-AMP (a cell messenger molecule)[*82].

Although most fish oils are high in EPA and DHA, there are some fish oils which are not. Flounder, swordfish and sole are particularly low in EPA and DHA. Fish oils having the highest levels of EPA and DHA include mackerel, herring and salmon. Some fish, such as cod and haddock, store most of their fat in the liver, therefore the liver oils of these fish should be taken rather than the fillet.

Increased fish oil consumption, however, is associated with increased lipid peroxidation in heart, liver and lung tissue moreso than in the brain[*83]. Again, VitaminE has been recommended for those who have a high fish oil consumption to reduce lipid peroxidation[*84]. In some cases, consumption of fish can harmful due to high levels of mercury (for more detail about mercury risk see my essayIs Mercury in Fish a Health Hazard?). Lipid peroxidation of LDL cholesterol is believed to initiate arterial wall injury and facilitate the formation of atherosclerotic foam cells. Leucocytes & endothelial cells may contribute to atherosclerosis through inflammation induced by 5-lipoxygenase;[PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (USA) 100(3):1238-1248 (2003)].

(For more details concerning cardiovascular disease, risk factors and prevention see my essaysSudden Cardiovascular Death andPrevention of Cardiovascular Disease.)

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XI. GETTING THE BEST FAT NUTRITION

Some advocates of “a return to natural levels” of fatty acid intake recommend dietary ratios of 1-to-1. Up until about 200 years ago, the human diet contained much higher levels of omega‚àí3 fatty acids. The meat of wild animals that forage for food is rich in EPA, unlike the meat of domesticated animals that have been fattened with grains. High levels of dietary omega‚àí6 vegetable oils are a modern phenomenon. EPA competes with arachidonic acid for the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme, reducing the production of thromboxaneA2, the most powerful platelet aggregating agent known. Some people feel that restoration of the historic omega‚àí3/omega‚àí6 ratios is a more “natural” way of preventing heart attack than using aspirin to irreversibly inactivate cyclo-oxygenase[*15]. Aspirin, even in normal therapeutic doses, can produce dizziness, migraine headaches, depression, anxiety, and stomach irritation or stomach bleeding[*87].

The high levels of omega‚àí6 fatty acids in modern diets may even adversely affect omega‚àí3 utilization by cellular mechanisms that reduce desaturase formation[*88]. Rats on a perilla oil diet which results in omega‚àí6 to omega‚àí3 ratios of approximately 1-to-4 showed the longest lifespans. Eskimos have low heart and autoimmune disease on a fish oil diet that gives a 1-to-3 ratio[*6]. Concern that the anti-clotting effect of fish oil might lead to increased incidence of stroke are apparently unfounded, since stroke is primarily the result of high blood pressure and weakened blood vessels.

It would seem prudent to reduce fat intake of nonessential fats to as low a quantity as possible, so long as absorption of oil-soluble vitamins is not impaired. Dietary fat could mainly consist of essential fats. The value of EPA or DHA to prevent serious heart problems should be enough to encourage anyone to take an amount of these nutrients up to 1% of total calories. For a person on a 2,500 calorie daily diet, this would mean 5to7.5 grams of essential fatty acids per day with perhaps 500mg each of EPA and DHA. But too much EPA and DHA can be harmful. When fish oil supplies up to 12% of calories, both the brain and the liver show arachidonic acid deficiencies[*48]. The same effect would probably be seen with excessive amounts of other omega‚àí3 supplements, like linseed or perilla oil.

It would be nice to have a single essential fatty acid formulation that optimizes benefits to the heart, the brain and the immune system for people of all ages, but this is probably unrealistic. Since DHA is responsible for most of the omega‚àí3 benefits to the brain and the omega‚àí3 prevention of heart arrhythmia while avoiding most of the immune-system depression due to EPA omega‚àí3 formulations that are higher in DHA rather than EPA should be preferred. For people who dislike fish oil, especially young people with healthy immune systems and functioning desaturase enzymes, perilla oil or linseed oil may be adequate to obtain a better balance between omega‚àí6 and omega‚àí3. Nonetheless, only about a fifth of alpha-linolenic acid is normally converted to DHA and EPA, partially because the body more readily burns unsaturated fats for energy than saturated fats[*6].

But for the very elderly, immune function might be the paramount consideration. Biomarkers of immune function were shown to be a very good predictor of the 2-year survival of 102 elderly people between the ages of 86 and 92[*89]. A normally mild disease can be fatal to a person with a weakened immune system. One lifespan study on rats showed reduced lifespan on rats fed fish oil[*90], possibly due to immune suppression by EPA. But rats are unlike humans in that they rarely die of cardiovascular disease and they have a lower capacity to synthesize the protective eicosanoid Prostacyclin (PCI3) from EPA. Other experiments, on mice, have shown extended lifespan with fish-oil. Fish oil even increased the life-extending benefits of calorie restriction on the mice[*91].

GLA supplements like evening primrose oil, or borage oil, might seem undesirable for normal people because of the danger that they would increase arachidonic acid. But studies have shown an increase in membrane DGLA and series1 eicosanoids, with beneficial anti-inflammatory consequences[*92]. GLA can also lower blood pressure[*93].

To minimize lipid peroxidation, essential fatty acid supplements should be taken with no less than 500mg of VitaminE per day. Both gamma and alpha forms of tocopherol should be included[*94] for effectiveness. VitaminE is an antioxidant which strongly prevents membrane peroxidation. The combination of VitaminE and omega‚àí3 fatty acid can reduce cancer risk while protecting heart cell membranes, brain cell membranes, immune-cell membranes and the receptor membranes that allow hormones to act. VitaminE can protect essential fatty acids from lipid peroxidation in capsules and in the bloodstream, as well as in cell membranes. But for smokers, vitaminE may not be adequate to reduce oxidation of fish oil in LDL-cholesterol, and some medical authorities have cautioned against too much fish oil consumption by smokers[*95].

Ideally, essential fatty acids and VitaminE should be formulated together in an air-tight capsule. VitaminC helps maintain the antioxidant capabilities of VitaminE. Boosting glutathione levels with N-acetyl-cysteine(NAC) and the use of other antioxidant nutrients can further protect against lipid peroxidation of essential fats. Glutathione not only regenerates both VitaminE and VitaminC that has been oxidized, it prevents formation of deadly hydroxyl free-radicals.

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XII. CONCLUSIONS

Liquid vitamins are a fantasic way to get all your daily vitamin and minerals in an easy to take liquid multi vitamin. The quality of ingredients is more important than the method used to deliver the supplement to the tissues of the body. What I mean by this is if you combine very high quality ingredients and put those into a liquid form, your level op cellular absorbtion will be very high. Conversely, if low grade ingredients are put into a caplet form, the level of absorbtion will be very low. The key is to use ingredients from an organic food source because the body uses these organic compounds much better than inorganic sources(non-plant derived). So if you are looking for the most highly absorbable liquid vitamin, than Total Body Nutrient is the one for you.

Click here to order your Liquid Multiple Vitamins and Minerals.

Everyone knows that omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial for the health of your heart and your brain. But how many of us know anything about omega-6 fatty acids? And for that matter, how many of us know what the recommended intake ratio is for those two compounds? Most Americans consume omega-6s and omega-3s in a ratio of about 20:1. However, the ideal ratio of these two fatty acids is 4:1.

We all know how beneficial omega-3’s are, yet we never seem to incorporate enough of them into the diet we are consuming. And given that both fatty acids require the same enzymes to function properly, getting way more omega-6’s starves omega-3’s and promotes inflammation in the body. This in return contributes to heart disease, cancer, arthritis, and asthma. That is why it is very beneficial to keep these two compounds well balanced. In the next paragraph I will provide a few helpful tips on how to achieve a better balance of these two fatty acids.

The first step towards balancing your ratio of fatty acids is raising your intake of omega-3’s. You can easily achieve this by eating oily fish at least twice a week. You can also achieve this goal by taking 1,000 mg of high quality fish oil every day. The second step towards achieving a balance of fatty acids is lowering your intake of omega-6’s. Even though omega 6 fatty acids are very important because they support skin health, keep cholesterol levels in check, and help blood clot, we tend to consume too much of this particular compound. We can help lower our intake by avoiding vegetable-oil-laden processed foods. We can also work into our diet more naturally balanced foods such as hempseeds, chia seeds, flaxseeds and walnuts. There are numerous ways to improve your nutrition; from various herbal remedies to the consumption of whey protein. So the next time you hear someone talking about fatty acids, be sure to explain to them how to achieve a well balanced ratio of the two.

Click here to order your Omega 3&6 Essential Fatty Acids.

Lauren S. Johnson writes health articles about fitness and nutrition.

Yours in health,

Cody Oakland M.S.

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MINERALS & VITAMINS
The soils that are used to grow our fruits and vegetables today have been depleted and the animals we eat are regularly given hormones to stimulate their growth. Soil no longer has the essential vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients that it once did. It is due to the fact that the foods that we eat are heavily processed. You cannot receive the same nutritional value from the plants that we eat, as we can from plant-derived minerals in a Liquid form.

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PROTEIN 0mg 0%
VITAMIN A 100%
VITAMIN C 100%
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VITAMIN B-1 100% 1.5 mg
VITAMIN B-2 100% 1.7 mg
VITAMIN B-6 100% 2 mg
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VITAMIN C 100% 60 mg
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This product really agrees with my system vs. other multi’s I have tried. Don’t know if it’s the fact that it’s liquid or that the amounts of each vitamin are reasonable (not mega amounts of anything).

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The Protocol Supplements Trio Pack(Totol Body Greens, Total Body Nutrient, and Super Omega 6&3) was put together for those seeking the highest quality nutrients in a broad spectrum to ensure that you are not only receiving all of your nutritional requirements, but are also delivering those nutrients to the cell where they are needed and used. Remember, it is not enough just to take a nutritional supplement, if the body can not move it from the blood into the cell it does you no good at all. That is why it is imparative to put the very best into your body and that is why I have put these highly absorbable organic nutritional products together. If you have not already given your body the very best, isn’t it time you did? The answer to that is yes if you were wondering.

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THE POWER OFGARCINIA MANGOSTEEN IN LIQUID A SUPPLEMENT FOUND IN PROTOCOL SUPPLEMENTS TOTAL BODY NUTRIENT

For centuries, the people of Southeast Asia have treasured the Mangosteen fruit for its many life-sustaining benefits. In fact, the Mangosteen fruit is considered the “Queen of Fruits”. Recent scientific findings support the wisdom of these traditional healers and can now be found in liquid supplements and “organic liquid multi vitamins” in particular.

Recent scientific inquiry has revealed the extraordinary benefits of the Mangosteen and its rich supply of antioxidants called Xanthones.

Studies have identified approximately 200 different types of Xanthones, and the Mangosteen fruit contains an amazing 43 of them! The antioxidant Xanthones found in the juice of the Mangosteen fruit have powerful antioxidant properties. Antioxidants help to neutralize and eliminate free radicals, and may help combat age-related degeneration of cells and body tissue.

While the scientific community has been studying the benefits of the Mangosteen for decades, no one has thought to bring these incredible benefits to the world in a potent, convenient form. Until now.

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*Mangosteen is one of the many key ingredients in Total Body Nutrient

How much good fat, fatty acids, should you be eating every day? And what is good fat? Most fat is good since your body needs all types of fat, but the best fats are the essential fatty acids. Even though saturated fat is called bad fat, the body still needs a little bit of this type of fat.

The amount of essential fatty acids that you should have in your diet, if you show no signs of any type of illness, is between 15 -20% of the overall calories you eat every day. The breakdown of the types of fats that you should be eating is, 3-4% saturated fat 5-7% omega-6 2.5-3.5% omega-3 5-10% omega-9

Click here to order your Essential Omega Fatty Acids.

Notice that you should be eating 5-10 % of omega-9. This is the best essential fatty acid for your health. The problem is that not that many foods or oils have a lot of omega-9, so it is hard to get 5-10% of this oil in your diet.

Digesting fats

Some of you may have problems digesting fatty acids and saturated fats. This may occur because you,

Don’t have any fat digestive enzymes

Have your gallbladder removed

Have a weak pancreas

To improve your digestion of essential fatty acids, you should be supplementing your diet with digestive enzymes. Since most fats are digested in the small intestine, just passed your stomach, you should be taking enteric enzymes.

Enteric enzymes are coated so that they are not used up in the stomach by acid and can reach the small intestine where most of the fats are digested.

If you don’t take digestive enzymes, you can improve the digestion of these fatty acids by mixing them with cottage cheese. When mixing flax seed oil with cottage cheese, the protein in the cottage cheese makes this oil more digestible.

Storing the essential fatty acids

The fatty acids and ground up flax seeds are sensitive to the environment and how they are processed and packaged. Improper handling of these oils will cause them to deteriorate and loss their potency.

The essential fatty acids are sensitive to,

Air

Heat

Light

Air

Oxygen from the air reacts quickly with fatty acids. This
Oxidation causes these oils to deterioration and become rancid. When using these oils keep the bottles close when they are not in use. Buy omega-3, fatty acid, only in dark containers.

Heat

Heating fatty acids causes them to chemically change into molecules that are harmful to your health. This is one reason why you should never use them to fry foods. Use flax seed oil or omega oil only at room temperature. When adding them to soups, add them after you pull the soups of the hot plate.

If manufacturers do not take the precautions to package and process these oils in the dark and use opaque bottles, the air, oxygen, heat, and light will destroy the value of these oils.

Light

Light is extremely detrimental to fatty acids. When light hits
fatty acids and oxygen is available, they speeds up the oxidation of these essential fatty acids by 1000 times. Under these conditions
these oils quickly become rancid. Light produces free radicals in these oils, which in turn create various chemicals that are harmful to your body.

Now, you have more facts about how to use, eat, and store the essential fatty acids. Treat them good and they will give you excellent health.

Click here to order your Omega Fatty Acids.

Rudy Silva, Natural Nutritionist, provide more free tips and information about using essential fatty acids. You can find this information at: http://www.fatty-acid-remedies.for–you.info You can also find his ebook on essential fatty acids at: http://www.fatty-acid-remedies.for–you.info/fattysales.html

Our calendars have a way of quickly becoming overwhelming at this festive time of year. Coping with a demanding schedule and the ensuing stress requires a lot of energy. If you are dragging yourself through your work, family, and other daily commitments each day longing for the moment you can crash in an exhausted heap onto your bed, then take these tips to keep your energy level up!

1. Feel berry energetic
Berries are rich in antioxidants and can also help remove toxic residue from the system, which is often the cause of chronic fatigue and low energy. Berries include blueberries, blackberries, raspberry, cranberry, goji berry, hawthorn berries and cherries.

2. Make the most of magnesium
Every time your body produces energy, your cells’ mitochondria, which are tiny “power generators”, need magnesium. Many people don’t get enough of this essential mineral, because two common dietary habits leach magnesium from our bodies: too much salt and too much dairy. Whole grains are full of magnesium. So are seeds such as pumpkin, sesame, and sunflower seeds. And don’t forgetabout nuts-especially almonds, Brazil nuts, and cashews. If you prefer capsule form, try taking 500 mg magnesium daily.

Combine the best of berries and nuts by making your own trail mix of dried cranberry, plum, and raisin with any combination of nuts and seeds. It’s an ideal between-meals snack packed with antioxidants, essential fatty acids, and fibers that help sustain energy over a long period of time.

3. Food that fights fatigue
Poor diet is a big contributor to low energy. For steady, robust energy eat foods that are low on the glycemic index, a measurement of how quickly the food you eat converts to glucose, the substance your body needs for energy. Foods with a high glycemic index (HGI), such as bread, pasta, baked potatoes, and most refined grains, give you a quick rush, but fatigue soon sets in when your blood sugar crashes. Foods that are low on the glycemic index help sustain energy over time. That include barley, bulgur, quinoa, amaranth, most nuts and seeds, beans and legumes, chicken, fish, and meat.

Avoid an energy crash by eliminating sugar from your diet, including sodas, sweetened juices, and pastries. Also cut back on rich foods like dairy, meat, fats, sweets, and alcohol. As for when to eat, never skip breakfast or lunch and be sure to eat your last meal no later than 7 p.m. most of the time.

4. Get green energy
Chlorella, spirulina, kelp, wheat grass, barley grass all contain chlorophyll and are high quality protein supplements that enhance long-term energy. Mix a powder of any of the above into water, juice, or green tea for an energetic boost.

5. Ginseng: a potent pick-me-up
Ginseng is considered the king of energy tonics and has been used in Chinese medicine for 5,000 years. Unlike coffee, which stimulates the central nervous system, ginseng elevates energy gently. It has been classified as an adaptogen, meaning that it helps the immune system to withstand stress from the environment, and many people that take ginseng report an overall sense of well-being. It is available in the form of capsules and tea in health food stores, atoffices of Chinese medicine practitioners, and online.

Another herbal energy enhancer is our Combined Five Elements of Health Formula. This powerful herbal combination gives your whole body a tune-up, promoting physical vitality, high tolerance for stress, and strong immunity, among many other benefits.

6. Increase your energy with exercise
Exercise every day can help you increase your energy level, cope with stress, and improve your mood. A daily 30-minute cardiovascular exercise combined with stretching and flexibility training is a sure way to get abundant energy.

If you are intimidated by jumping right into exercise, begin with a daily walking routine. Start small and slowly increase the amount of time you walk. Walk 10 minutes a day for one week. Walk 15 minutes a day on week two, and so on until by week five, you are walking 30 minutes a day. In the meantime, a walk around the block builds your energy level as it clears your mind!

7. Press here for energy
In Chinese medicine, there is an acupuncture point called Foot Three Mile that can be stimulated to help strengthen the body‚Äôs resistance to stress, enhance immunity, and strengthen the vital organs. You can stimulate the same acupuncture point on yourself with a technique called “acupressure.” Instead of a needle stimulating the point, you can use your own fingers. The point is located four finger-widths below the kneecap on the right leg. Apply moderate pressure with your thumb until you feel soreness. Hold for 3-5 minutes. Repeat on the left leg.

Summer Fisher is an Australian designer, stylist and former model who has her own swimwear and clothing line “Busy Summer”. She enjoys sharing her knowledge about fashion, modeling, health & beauty and designing for the fashion conscious woman who wants a high fashion look at an affordable price. Find out more about her and her label at http://www.busysummer.com

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