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To order your Master Amino Acid Pattern, click here.
Master Amino Acid Pattern, as I have said many times, is the most potent amino acid supplement ever created.  I have spent years researching the different processing methods available for egg, whey, among other forms of protein, and found that even the best ones only deliver a portion of their amino acid profile to the working muscles for anabolic action.  There is something called “Net Nitrogen Utilization” (NNU) and it has to do with the amount of nitrogen that can be taken up by the muscles.  Here is comparison for the amount nitrogen that can be utilized for protein synthesis:

Master Amino Acid Pattern-99% NNU

Meat, Poultry, Fish, Eggs- Avg. 32% NNU

Other Amino Acid Formulas-Avg. 18% NNU

Whey, Casein, Soy, Egg White-Avg. 17%NNU

MAP provides the the highest nutritional value of any dietary protein or amino acid supplement.  Since it has an NNU of 99%, this means that 99% of it’s constituant amino acids act as precursors of the body’s protein synthesis, namely, as “building blocks.”  Map releases the the lowest amount of metabolic waste in comparison to any dietary protein or amino acid supplement.  Map only releases 1%  as nitrogen catabolites (metabolic waste).  This is compared to dietary proteins that release between 52%-84% in nitrogen catabolites.

Map also provides the lowest amount of calories, compared to other proteins, and releases only 1/2 of a colrie per 10 MAP tablets.  Conversley, those same 10 tablets provide and deliver the protein synthesis equivelent of approximately 12.5 ounces of fish, poultry or meat, which in turn provides 900-1200 calories.  Another amazing fact about MAP is that it is pre-digested and enters the bloodstream in 23 minutes.   This means that it does not go through the intestines so the body can extract the amino acids over the course of 3-5 hours.  Less stress on the body means more energy can go toward your workouts.  Isn’t that what you are looking for?  Don’t wait another minute to get the right muscle building, anabolic supplement to help you get the results you have been striving for.  I thank you for taking the time to learn about this amazing product.  If you have questions regarding how to use MAP, let me know.

Yours in health,

Cody Oakland, M.S.

Click here to order Master Amino Acid Pattern

It is well established that Master Amino Acid Pattern is the king of amino acid supplements.  MAP has an absorbtion rate of 99.8%, that means that all but .02% of the amino acids in Master Amino Acid Pattern find their way to the working muscles.  Since Master Amino Pattern is pre-digested, they are taken up into the bloodstream through the lining of the small intestines and delivered directly into the bloodstream for transport to the working muscles.  What you might not know is that master Amino Pattern, because of it’s purity and perfect balance of essential amino acids, they do have to end up in the kidneys  to be excreted.  This is important for a few reasons, 1) there are no nitrogen metabolites created because protein uptake is 99.8%, 2) there is no catabolic waste created because that high number means that it is almost completely anabolic in nature,and 3) there is no stress on the kidneys.  Most amino acid supplements on the market provide somewhere between 15-25%  net nitrogen utilization (NNU), this is the anabolic action a protein can deliver to the body.  I don’t know about you, but if I am going to use an amino acid supplement, I want it to have the highest absorbtion rate, cause the least amount of stress on my body and deliver the most amount of anabolic action to my working muscles.  The answer seems pretty simple.  If you want the most potent, anabolic amino acid supplement ever created, Master Amino Acid Pattern is the clear winner.  Your prize for finding this article is my special buy3 get 1 free offer.  No, this is not a promotion, if you are serious about your training than I want to give you a break on the price.  Here is to hard training with the right supplements.

Yours in health,

Cody

Discover the benefits of an organic greens powder to fuel your body.

ORDER GREEN POWDERS TO FUEL YOUR BODY.

More people are suffering from undernourishment than ever before, even though they are actually eating more. Many people are under the false impression that eating more will get more nutrition into the body, this false belief has led to the supplement industry making hundreds of millions of dollars off of bad information. Many people in the U.S.A., some estimates say 2/3, know that their nutrition is lacking and therefore are turning to supplementation to take up the slack. Since food quality has diminished so much over the last few decades, the nutrition has become very profitable. Even the fresh food we get today is not as nutrition as it was even 30 years ago. Today’s eating regimens consist mainly of chemical laced packaged food. In order to get the right nutrition out of your food, it should consist of mainly whole, organic foods. Nutritional supplements are huge moneymakers.

Click here to order your Organic Green Drink Powder

Hopefully you are using supplements to improve your overall health. The facts don’t lie, even though the use of supplements has increased, the rate of disease is also on a steady climb upwards. Might this mean that nutritional supplements are doing what they are supposed to?
Move back to optimum health with green super foods.
Behold, not all supplements are the same. Is there a difference between synthetic and natural supplements? Our bodies are designed to use real food, not synthetic. A good deal of the vitamins on the market do not have very good cellular permeability. The important thing to understand here is that supplements that are food derived feed your body in a holistic manner. These whole food supplements contain a wide array of trace minerals, enzymes, and phytonutrients that are not present in synthetic health products. Drinking adequate water also plays a significant part in nutrition. If you don’t have enough water in your system your body simply can’t absorb the nutrients effectively form the food you eat. Synthetic supplements, a good deal of the time, are not recognized by the body and therefore simply excreted as waste. A “superfood” on the other hand is a nutrient rich source of vitamins and minerals taken from organic greens, organic fruits, chlorella, and other natural sources and are converted into super greens powder mixes you add to water. The single best reason for using this powder, organic form of nutrition is that it is easily absorbed by the body. Organic green powders are the best choice because there are no tablets to break down and there are no binders or fillers to slow down or hamper absorption.
Food that is cheap is not always nutritional; meaning plenty of food is not plenty of nutrition.Whole grains, seasonal vegetables and organic homegrown produce was how we humans ate for tens of thousands of years. A hundred years ago, the American diet was changed to a mass production style of farming. This shift resulted in a giant change in growing, processing, manufacturing and preparing food for almost everyone. These changes created a need for supplemental nutrition in the form of green superfoods.
Consuming a high quality organic whole food product makes much more sense than a handful of pills. If your body can’t absorb the nutrients, it will do you no good. Super green foods provide a massive amount of protein, trace minerals and highly digestible vitamins. Since it is made from real food, you get much more out of it. If you want to feel the effects of taking supplements why not try super green food?

Protocol Supplements is the liquid vitamin and mineral leader and is thrilled to offer you, and your family, the very best in liquid vitamin supplementation.  For many of you, transitioning from pills and caplets to a liquid vitamin is a new experience.  This is simply the best, and most obsorbable, means of delivery of essential vitamins and minerals to the cells of your body.  Better delivery equals better absorbtion, right?  The answer to that question is yes.  Let me put it to you this way, if a company is going to go the the expense and trouble to put the supplements into a liquid multi vitamin in the first place, than the raw ingredients are usually of a higher quality and standard.  The buying public is more sopisticated and informed these days and tend to do more homework to make the right choices for their health needs.

HOW IMPORTANT ARE LIQUID VITAMINS AND MINERALS?

CLICK HERE TO ORDER YOUR ORGANIC LIQUID MULTI VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Like you, I used to wonder if I was getting all of the essential nutrients out of the food I was eating.  The food grown today is not what it used to be.  With all the chemicals added and the minerals not returned to the soil, we have a bountiful harvest of food that looks nice, but is severly nutrient deficient.  It is easy to get into a pattern of buying the latsest and greatest supplement of the week with many of them leaving you with little or no results except to drain your wallet.  The key any truly effective supplement for our bodies is one made from, that’s right you guessed it, FOOD.  Good ol’ food, not synthetic look alikes.  That what you get in most multiple vitamins today.  Remember what I said about the cost of high quality ingredients?  Well, the stores are full of pills that deliver, are you ready for this, around 5-15% cellular absorbsion.  Why, because they use sub-standard synthetic nutrients that our bodies have a hard time processing, let alone delivering, to hungry starved cells.

LIQUID MULTI VITAMINS AND MINERALS

If you are like us here at Protocol Supplements, we have done our fair share of research to create the best and truly amazing liquid vitamin supplement that will address your health needs.  We spent a tremendous amount of time coming up with not only the right ingredients, but the right sources of all the nutrients to ensure proper absorbtion.  As you may know, our bodies cannot manufacture many of the nutrients found in TOTAL BODY NUTRIENT , that is why it is so important to make sure that you get the highest quality liquid multi vitamin available.  TOTAL BODY NUTRIENT was created because the  soils that are used to grow our fruits and vegetables today have been depleted and the animals we eat are regularly given hormones to stimulate their growth. Soil no longer has the essential vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients that it once did. It is due to the fact that the foods that we eat are heavily processed. You cannot receive the same nutritional value from the plants that we eat, as we can from plant-derived minerals in a Liquid form.
It is now important and life sustaining* to add supplements to our diets with good, high-quality nutrition such as vitamins and minerals.
The best effective way to increase your intake of minerals is through the use of Liquid form*. Liquid minerals are a unique and excellent source for over 70 different minerals.
Total Body Nutrient™ was formulated to provide every member of the family with all the vitamins and minerals for good health.

70 Plus Essential Minerals and Trace Elements
100% of the USRDI for 11 Essential Vitamins
Delicious Citrus Flavor, Natural Sweeteners
Easy to Assimilate 1 ounce Liquid Multi Vitamin Convenient Daily Serving

Click here to get your Organic Green Food Supplements

Since you are looking for an organic super green food supplement, look no further.  This is the product you have been looking for.  It is a combination of organic greens and fruits that will deliver the cellular nutrition your body needs and craves.  Imagine getting all the vitamins and minerals from a whole basket of organic produce in every glass.  I don’t know about you, but I have a hard time eating enough raw fruits and veggies everyday, consistently, to make sure that I am getting all the nutrients I need.  With Total Body Nutrient I know that I am putting the right kind of organic nutrition I require to operate at optimum.  Do you and your body a favor and try some today.  I have included a brief article that highlights some of the problems with not only the lack of good nutrtion today, but some of the drawbacks of the supplement industry, enjoy.

Click here to order your Organic Green Food Supplement

Malnutrition is on the rise today, even with an increase in food consumption. Since more and more people are starting to understand that their diets are lacking in good nutrition, many are starting to use supplements. Since food quality has diminished so much over the last few decades, the nutrition has become very profitable. Food grown today does not have near the nutrition it once had. Today’s eating regimens consist mainly of chemical laced packaged food. In order to get the right nutrition out of your food, it should consist of mainly whole, organic foods. Nutritional supplements are huge moneymakers.

You may be taking vitamin or mineral supplements yourself. Yes, even as the use of supplements has grown the level of diseases has not dropped. In fact many rates have increased. Some would say that supplements are doing what they should to curb bad health.

The good news is that not all supplements are created the same. There are two different types of nutrients you can buy, those created by nature and synthetic. Our bodies are designed to use real food, not synthetic. The fact of the matter is that your body does not utilize many of the supplements they take. Whole food supplements nourish your body in a holistic way. These whole food supplements contain a wide array of trace minerals, enzymes, and phytonutrients that are not present in synthetic health products. Drinking adequate water also plays a significant part in nutrition. If you don’t have enough water in your system your body simply can’t absorb the nutrients effectively form the food you eat. Synthetic supplements, a good deal of the time, are not recognized by the body and therefore simply excreted as waste. A super food is a term for super green powders containing Spirulina Chlorella Kelp and other green vegetables. The single best reason for using this powder, organic form of nutrition is that it is easily absorbed by the body. The great thing about an organic greens powder is that there are no pills to breakdown.

Cheap food usually means low nutrition value (fast food), so eating more of it will not necessarily give you more nutrition, but it will make you fat.

Our diets did not significantly change until about a hundred years ago when mass food production replaced the way we got our food. The shift away from traditional farming practices resulted in a change in growing, processing, delivery, and chemical applications for virtually everyone. The rise of the nutrition industry. and organic green powders, was brought about by these changes.

It stands to reason that a whole food supplement would give your body much more nutrition than a pill or caplet. The thing to remember is that if the pills you take are not food based, your body will not get much out of them. Since it is made from real food, you get much more out of it. Now that you are aware of some fun facts, isn’t it time to try a super greens food powder.

There is a great need for an organic green super food type powder drink to be included in a daily regimen to ensure the right amount of food based vitamins and minerals to feed all the cells of the body.

Click here to order yours now.

Although many people’s calorie intake has increased, there is still rampant malnutrition in our country. What has given rise to a multibillion nutritional supplement business is because most people believe that if they eat a lot of food they receive plenty of nutrition. Since more and more people are starting to understand that their diets are lacking in good nutrition, many are starting to use supplements. The supplement industry has grown so large because the nutrient levels in our fruits and vegetables has gone down so far. Commercial farming has slowly, but surely, made the food we eat much less nutritious. The modern American diet is filled with food that is pre-packaged and filled with chemicals and preservatives. Organic fruits and vegetables plus whole grains and foods in their natural state leads to proper nutrition. Can you see now why companies that sell nutritional products are doing so well?

You may be taking vitamin or mineral supplements yourself. The facts don’t lie, even though the use of supplements has increased, the rate of disease is also on a steady climb upwards. Might this mean that nutritional supplements are doing what they are supposed to?

The good news is that not all supplements are created the same. Are you getting your nutrients from whole foods or synthetic tablets? Our bodies are designed to use real food, not synthetic. In fact many people are not aware that their bodies are not able to use the vitamins they take. The important thing to understand here is that supplements that are food derived feed your body in a holistic manner. They contain trace minerals, phytonutrients and other elements that aid in vitamin digestion and absorption. The consumption of the proper amount of water is a vital part of any nutrition plan. If you don’t have enough water in your system your body simply can’t absorb the nutrients effectively form the food you eat. The main problem with synthetic, also known as “fake”, nutrients is that they are often in forms your body just is not able to utilize at the cellular level and if they cannot enter the cellular membrane, they do your body no good. A term coined is that of the “Super food”, derived from organic fruits and vegetables, super green foods, and some sea derived vegetation like kelp that is abundant in high quality minerals. Taking your supplements in this organic whole food form, you are sure to give the cells of your body the nutrition it needs. Unlike synthesized vitamin tablets, there are no fillers or tablets to digest first.

Food that is cheap is not always nutritional; meaning plenty of food is not plenty of nutrition.

We have, up until the last number of decades, had access to much higher quality foods that were not poisoned with industrial insecticides, we ate local organic produce. Our diets did not significantly change until about a hundred years ago when mass food production replaced the way we got our food. The shift away from traditional farming practices resulted in a change in growing, processing, delivery, and chemical applications for virtually everyone. This change also brought forth the rise in supplemental nutrition.

It only makes sense that whole foods give your body more nutrition than a single vitamin or even a fistful. It doesn’t matter how many you take if your body can’t use them. Super green food powders can deliver a very high quality of vitamins, minerals, and other co-factors. Because whole foods contain such a high amount of trace elements, your body reps all the benefits. Now that you are aware of some fun facts, isn’t it time to try a super greens food powder.

<link rel=”canonical” href=”Organic Green Drink”>

To order yours now click here Master Amino Pattern. This amazing amino acid supplement is pre-digested and gets into the bloodstream within 23 minutes. All Amino Acids and proteins are not created equal. There are many manufacturing methods that either give you a product that the body can use to build strength, size, and power or one that will be a burden to your kidneys because it is not anabolic in nature, but catabolic. This is not what you want in an amino acid product. You want anabolic action and that is what MAP delivers. The NNU(net nitrogen utilization)is 99.8%, that means only building and repair. If you are serious about your training and recovery,Master Amino Pattern is the serios athletes choice.

Click here to order your Super Omega Essential Fatty Acids.

I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

Low-fat foods have frequently been advocated for people attempting to diet. Some people on diets to lose weight have discovered that they can satisfy their appetite with fewer calories by eating protein and carbohydrate instead of fat. Losing weight not only makes a person look good, it can reduce the danger of getting heart disease, diabetes andcancer. But the health hazards and benefits of fats, carbohydrates and proteins and their effectiveness for diets and dieting depend greatly on thetype of fat, carbohydrate and protein. (SeeMacronutrients, Dieting and Health)

Dietary fat by itself, not just the body fat it produces, can be ahealthhazard. A recent study has shown that reducing dietary fat from 36% of total calories to 26% of total calories can significantly lower blood pressure within 8 weeks[*2]. Saturated fat in the diet can increase the risk of heart disease from atherosclerosis (fatty plaques on blood vessel walls) by raising blood cholesterol. Unsaturated fat is more likely to formfree radicals by lipid peroxidation which can lead to cancer and may accelerate aging. Therefore, both saturatedand unsaturated fat can have health hazards. But every cell membrane in the body contains fat, and some of those fats cannot by synthesized making it essential to obtain these fats from diet.

Some nutritionists have recommended substituting mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fats for saturated fats, but another recommendation is to substitute protein and carbohydrate calories for fat calories[*3]. Fats (especially animal fats) are the primary vehicle by which pesticides enter the body. Some people might conclude that it would be a good idea to eliminateall fat from the diet. But eliminating all fat isnot a good idea.

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II. FATS IN THE BODY

Your body needs fats to function properly. Nearly half of the dry weight of the brain is fat, and a quarter of this is cholesterol. Cholesterol is an essential part of sex hormones, bile acids, Dvitamins and steroid hormones from the cortex of the adrenal gland among other important substances. Cholesterol does not need to be eaten, however, because the liver and other tissues can manufacture cholesterol from saturated fats. But too many saturated fats result in excessively high blood levels of cholesterol that can end up being deposited in atherosclerotic plaques on blood vessels, leading to cardiovascular disease. High blood cholesterol also depresses the immune system and thereby increases the incidence of cancer[*4]. Excessive blood cholesterol is more often caused by eating too many saturated fats than by eating cholesterol itself.

Studies in the United States and Northern Europe have established that the incidence of coronary heart disease mortality is nearly two-and-a-half times higher for people with the highest 25% of blood cholesterol compared with people with the lowest 25%. Yet the coronary heart disease mortality for the same cholesterol levels is only one-third as great in Japan or the Mediterranean[*6]. A person in west Scotland having the same blood cholesterol levels as a person in Catalonia, Spain is 8-times more likely to die of coronary heart disease. So although cholesterol is a factor in coronary mortality, it is not the only factor.

The term blood cholesterol is actually a reference to HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein), LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) and VLDL (Very Low-Density Lipoprotein). “Lipo” means “lipid”, a general term that refers to all biological fats and oils. HDL has been called “good cholesterol” because it can pick up excess fats and carry them back to the liver. LDL (and especially VLDL) has been called “bad cholesterol” because it can become so overloaded with fats that the fats are dropped on blood vessel walls rather than carried to the cells where they are needed. LDL could also be called “good”, because LDL supplies cells with fats needed for structure and function. In fact, LDL is the main carrier of oil-soluble substances (likeVitaminE) to body cells[*5]. LDL-cholesterol is just HDL-cholesterol with a larger load of surrounding fat. Exercise creates HDL from LDL by removing fat from LDL for use as energy.

Oxidation of LDL is what causes cholesterol to be deposited in plaque on blood vessel walls[*5]. The vulnerability of LDL cholesterol to oxidation depends on both the quantity ofantioxidants in the blood and on the type of fatty acid in the LDL. Fruits, vegetables and supplements (especially VitaminE with VitaminC) will reduce LDL oxidation. The dietary fat that is most vulnerable to oxidation is linoleic acid[*7]. High blood levels of homocysteine thiolactone cause LDL to aggregate. Oxidized, aggregated LDL is readily attacked by macrophages to form atherosclerotic plaques on blood vessel walls[*8].

Aside from cholesterol, most other fat in the body is constructed from what is known asfatty acids. A fatty acid is a long straight chain of carbon atoms (studded with hydrogen atoms) that has an acid group (carboxylic acid) at one end (the water-soluble end). The rest of the fatty acid is oil-soluble, with a methyl group at the other end. Fatty acids in the body usually exist unattached to any other molecule (free fatty acids), attached to glycerol in groups of three (triglycerides), or attached to phosphatidic acid molecules (phospholipids).

Fatty acids differ from one another not only by the number of carbons in their chain, but by the number of double-bonds between the carbon atoms. Fatty acids with only single-bonds are calledsaturated because they are “saturated” with as many hydrogen atoms as they can carry. Fatty acids with only one double-bond are calledmono-unsaturated. And fatty acids with more than one double-bond are calledpoly-unsaturated.

Polyunsaturated fats have often been recommended to reduce coronary heart disease[*9]. But all saturated fats do not have the same effect on cholesterol synthesis in the liver. Only the saturated fats of chain-length 12, 14 and 16 (lauric acid, myristic acid and palmitic acid) have been shown to elevate blood cholesterol. Of these, myristic acid (high in coconut and palm oil) elevates cholesterol the most[*10]. Stearic acid (18-carbon, saturated) has been shown to lower cholesterol by 21% even more than oleic acid (18-carbon, mono-unsaturated) which lowers LDL by 15%[*11].

Polyunsaturated fatty acids can be a health hazard because carbon-carbon double bonds can lead to free-radical formation and reactions with oxygen to form unstable lipid peroxide compounds containing the same unstable oxygen-oxygen bond found in hydrogen peroxide. Lipid peroxidation and free radicals can cause cancer and may accelerate aging. High rates of lung cancer among women in China have been associated with lipid peroxidized oils in fumes from cooking polyunsaturated vegetable oils in a wok[*12]. Hot oil in open air is subject to much lipid peroxidation. Fast-food restaurants that fry foods in the same oil all day serve lots of lipid peroxides to their customers.

Polyunsaturated “cis” fatty acids can be beneficial in cell membranes by preventing the tight packing of fatty acids in membranes thereby making the membranes more “fluid”. Membrane fluidity is important for optimal function of most cells in the body. But membrane fluidity is especially important on portions of cells that act as receptors for hormones or neurotransmitters. The typical North American eats three times as much saturated fat as unsaturated fat, yet animal experiments show that insulin receptor responsiveness is substantially improved when dietary unsaturated fat is greater than saturated fat[*13]. With aging, however, cell membrane fluidity declines in part because of increasing amount of cholesterol in the membranes, but more importantly because of free-radical oxidation[*14].Antioxidants that protect cell membranes, like VitaminE, are extremely valuable in opposing membrane oxidation.

2-BUTANE ISOMERS

CIS ISOMER	TRANS ISOMER

Fatty acid double-bonds come in two configurations known ascis (carbon chains on the same side of a double-bond) andtrans (carbon chains on the opposite side of a double-bond). Most of the double-bonds made by biological systems have thecis configuration. It is thecis configuration of unsaturated fatty acids that prevents tight packing of fatty acids in membranes, and hence increases membrane fluidity.

Saturated fats (like butter or lard) and fatty acids withtrans double-bonds (like margarine) tend to be solids at room temperature, whereas natural fatty acids withcis double-bonds (like vegetable oils) tend to be liquids. By artificially hydrogenating vegetable oils, the food processing industry reduces the number of double bonds and causes the formation oftrans fatty acids. Hydrogenation results in margarines that are more solid and less vulnerable to rancidity. Hydrogenation results in peanut butter with a trans-fat-containing oil that does not separate from the peanut paste. But whentrans fatty acids are incorporated into cell membranes, the membrane fluidity is reduced and the cells do not function as well. Not alltrans fatty acids in the diet are due to food processing. For example, natural butter is 5%trans fat.

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III. THE CHEMISTRY OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

The human body can manufacture most of the fats it needs, including cholesterol, saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids. But there are two fatty acids which cannot be manufactured in the body, and which must be obtained from dietary sources:linoleic acid andalpha-linolenic acid. These are theessential fatty acids. Linoleic acid is an 18-carbon chain with 2double-bonds, whereas alpha-linolenic acid is an 18-carbon chain with 3double-bonds. The position of double-bonds in a fatty acid is critical to function, and this is especially true of double-bonds close to the methyl end. For long-chain fatty acids, the body’s enzymes cannot add double-bonds near the methyl end.

The configuration (geometry) at the double bond can be eithercis (adjacent hydrogen atoms on the same side of the molecule) ortrans (adjacent atoms on the opposite side). Unsaturated fatty acids in thetrans configuration are more linear, more rigid and have a higher melting-point. The distinctiveness ofcis &trans fatty acids merit unique names:cis-9-octadecanoic acid isoleic acid, whereastrans-9-octadecanoic acid iselaidic acid. (For more ontrans fatty acids, see my essay Are Trans-Fatty Acids a Health Hazard?.)

The body cannot make an omega‚àí3 or omega‚àí6 fatty acid because human metabolism cannot add a double-bond to a fatty acid that is more than 9carbons away from the delta end. For the same reason, the body cannot convert an omega‚àí3 to an omega‚àí6 fatty acid, or vice-versa. But the body can make omega‚àí9 fatty acids. And the body can add more double-bonds closer to the delta end of omega‚àí3 and omega‚àí6 fatty acids.

Two distinct families of essential fatty acids exist in the human body:the omega‚àí3 family and omega‚àí6 family. Theomega‚àí3 family comes from alpha-linolenic acid, and theomega‚àí6 family comes from linoleic acid. Each family is the result of increasing chain length and of forming double-bonds from one of these two essential fatty acids. The two families compete for the same enzymes for forming double bonds (desaturase enzymes) and enzymes for lengthening the carbon chain (elongase enzymes). Elongase enzymes always add carbon atoms (in pairs) to the delta end of the fatty acid.

The Production of EFA Derivatives

Forming a double-bond at the 9th carbon of linoleic acid results ingamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Likealpha-linolenic acid, gamma-linolenic acid has 3double-bonds. But gamma-linolenic acid is an omega‚àí6, whereas alpha-linolenic is an omega‚àí3 fatty acid. The words “alpha” and “gamma” in this case have no chemical meaning. The confusing terms “alpha-linolenic” and “gamma-linolenic” are common names, not scientific names, and are meaningless in the context of current scientific naming conventions.

Another important product of linoleic acid isarachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid is a 20-carbon omega‚àí6 fatty acid with 4 double-bonds. Arachidonic acid, in turn, gives rise to a whole group of 20-carbon, biologically-important substances known as theeicosanoids (eicosa- is Greek for “20″), including prostaglandins, thromboxanes, lipoxins and leukotrienes which affect immunity, inflammation and blood clotting (among other actions). But omega‚àí3 fatty acids can also produce eicosanoids.

Noteworthy members of the omega‚àí3 family of fatty acids manufactured from alpha-linolenic acid areEicosaPentaenoic Acid(EPA) andDocasaHexaenoic Acid (DHA). A pentaenoic acid has 5 double-bonds. A hexaenoic acid has 6double-bonds. EPA is a 20-carbon chain fatty acid, whereas DHA is a 22-carbon chain fatty acid. Like arachidonic acid, EPA gives rise to its own class of eicosanoids. The EPA-generated eicosanoids are in the omega‚àí3 family, as distinct from the omega‚àí6 eicosanoids derived from arachidonic acid.

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IV. ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS IN THE DIET

Alpha-linolenic acid, the primary dietary source of omega‚àí3 fatty acids in the diet, is frequently found in green leaves. The leaves and seeds of the perilla plant (widely eaten in Japan, Korea and India) are the richest plant source of alpha-linolenic acid, although linseed oil is also a rich source. Fish oil contains very little alpha-linolenic acid, but is rich in the omega‚àí3 derivatives EPA and DHA. Fish are at the top of a food chain based on phytoplankton (algae) that manufacture large amounts of EPA and DHA. Nonetheless, fish can be high in toxic methylmercury. (For more information, see my essay Is Mercury in Fish a Health Hazard?)

It has been estimated that thousands of years ago the diet of human hunter-gatherers consisted of approximately equal parts of omega‚àí3 and omega‚àí6 essential fatty acids[*15]. Since the beginning of agriculture ten thousand years ago there has been a steady increase in omega‚àí6 at the expense of omega‚àí3 fat in the human diet. This process accelerated about 50 years ago as cattle began to be fed increasingly on grains rather than grass. Recommendations by nutritionists to eat margarine rather than butter (polyunsaturated rather than saturated fats) increased the trend toward omega‚àí6 and trans fat consumption. Currently, the ratio of omega‚àí6 to omega‚àí3 fatty acids in the American diet is 7‚àíto‚àí1 or more. There are good reasons to believe that this imbalanced essential fatty acid ratio has led to increased cancer, heart disease, allergies, diabetes and other afflictions. Much of the reason for this lies in the membranes of our cells.

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V. ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS IN CELL MEMBRANES

Phospholipids in Cell Membranes

Different cells have different quantities of phospholipid in their membranes. Gray matter in the brain is nearly 70% phospholipid, whereas brain white matter is less than half phospholipid because of high concentrations of glycolipid (sugar-fat). There is much variation in the amounts and kinds of phospholipid in membranes. Brain gray matter is 30% phosphatidylcholine whereas brain white matter is 10% phosphatidylcholine. The inner layer of neuron membranes primarily contain phosphatidylethanolamine & phosphatidylserine, whereas in the outer layer phosphatidylcholine & sphingomyelin predominate.

Mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum membranes are both 40% phosphatidylcholine. But mitochondrial membranes are also 35% phosphatidylethanolamine, whereas endoplasmic reticulum membrane is about 17% phosphatidylethanolamine.

Cells also vary considerably in the kinds of fatty acids attached to phosphatidic acid. In gray matter cell membranes, the fatty acids in the middle position of phospholipids are composed of carbon chains that are longer and more unsaturated than fatty acids found in the membrane phospholipids of most other cells. Fatty acids that are long and highly unsaturated increase membrane fluidity and functionality, which is why DHA and arachidonic acid are highly concentrated in the phospholipids of neuron synapses. Unsaturated fatty acids are also important for membrane activity at the site of hormone receptors. Insulin resistance in adult-onset diabetes is associated with fewer membrane long-chain unsaturated fatty acids due to impaired desaturase and elongase enzyme function[*16].

The alcohol portion of a phospholipid protrudes away from the membrane, whereas the two fatty acids jut into the membrane. The middle fatty acid (in the second position) is usually unsaturated (like DHA or arachidonic acid) whereas the end fatty acid (in the first position) is usually saturated (like stearic acid). Each of the 3groups attached to the glycerol backbone has a special enzyme that can separate the group from the backbone.PhospholipaseA₁ enzyme attacks the attachment of the first fatty acid,PhospholipaseA₂ attacks the attachment of the middle fatty acid andPhospholipaseD attacks the alcohol attachment.PhospholipaseC which is a major toxin secreted by bacteria releases 1,2-DiAcylGlycerol(DAG) along with a phosphoryl base.

Phospholipase Enzymes in Cell Membranes

Frequently the unsaturated fatty acid stored in the second position of a cell membrane will be arachidonic acid, EPA or DHA (especially in the neurons). The release of arachidonic acid or EPA from cell membranes by PhospholipaseA₂ allows the enzymes lipoxygenase and cyclooxygenase to form biologically active eicosanoids likeprostaglandins (PGZs, first isolated inprostategland),thromboxanes (TXZs, first isolated inthrombocytes) andleucotrienes (LTZs, first isolated inleucocytes). These eicosanoids can be compared to hormones, except that unlike hormones they are destroyed by local enzymes within seconds or minutes after formation. This limits the activities of eicosanoids to the area where they were released.

Having cell membranes contain fatty acids that can form the hormone-like eicosanoids gives the body the capacity to produce quick, localized action in almost any tissue or organ. The most general need for rapid, local action is the response to trauma. Therefore, eicosanoids are most often concerned with clotting, inflammation and the initiation of immune defense.

Some membrane phospholipids, such as the phosphatidylinositols, function to convert activity at cell surface G-protein-coupled receptors into intracellular signals. Hydrolysis by phospholipaseC and phospholipaseD produce thesecond messengers (intracellular messengers)DiAcylGlycerol(DAG) [which stimulates Protein KinaseC(PKC)] andInositol triPhosphate(IP₃) [which causes intracellular release of calcium]. Activated PKC concentrates in the plasma membrane where it phosphorylates membrane proteins of receptors and ion-channels to inhibit their function (negative feedback). Nuclear FactorkappaB (NF‚àíŒ∫B) activated by PKC binds to DNA promoters & enhancers of inflammatory cytokines, among other genes. IP₃ binds to the endoplasmic reticulum, releasing calcium stored in that location. DAG can be further hydrolysed by PhospholipaseA₂ to release more arachidonic acid.Ethanol increases PhospholipaseA₂ activity, increasing oxidative stress.

Three categories ofPhosphoLipaseA₂ (PLA₂) are recognized:secretory PLA₂ (sPLA₂),cytoplasmic PLA₂ (cPLA₂) andCa²⁺-independent PLA₂ (iPLA₂). The cPLA₂ is activated by Ca²⁺ to a much greater extent than sPLA₂. Whereas sPLA₂ is more prominent in inflammatory disease, cPLA₂ is more associated withoxidative free radical damage. The cPLA₂ shows a marked preference for hydrolyzing oxidized arachidonic acid in cell membranes, which may be important for membrane maintenance when sufficient ATP is available to synthesize and insert fresh arachidonic acid into membranes. Arachidonic acid is a particularly common constituent of brain neuron membranes and the massive release of arachidonic acid in cerebral cortexischemia/reperfusion plays a significant role in exacerbating ischemic/reperfusion damage. The activity of cPLA₂ on inner mitochondrial membranes can also be exacerbated under conditions of high oxidative stress.

There are three series of the prostaglandin and thromboxane eicosanoids:one derived from DGLA (series1), one derived from arachidonic acid (series2) and one derived from EPA(series3). The series number indicates the number of double-bonds in the prostaglandin or thromboxane. Series1 prostaglandins are not as common in the body as series 2or3 in part because DGLA is not plentiful in many tissues. Series2 predominates over series3 for at least three reasons:(1)arachidonic acid is more readily released from cell membranes than EPA, (2)arachidonic acid reacts far more avidly with cyclo-oxygenase enzyme than does EPA and (3)contemporary Western diets contain large amount of linoleic acid, which results in large amounts of arachidonic acid in cell membranes. The predominance of arachidonic acid eicosanoids over EPA-eicosanoids due to excessively high dietary omega‚àí6 (compared to omega‚àí3) is at the root of many modern health problems, only some of which are concerned with the immune system.

Eicosanoid Abbreviations

Series-2 Eicosanoids (from Arachidonic Acid)

Series-3 Eicosanoids (from EPA)

Cyclooxygenases (COXs) can be divided intoCOX-1 (present at constant levels in most cells & tissues) andCOX-2 (normally absent from most cells, but rapidly rising to high levels in response to growth factors, cytokines, hypoxia, toxins and other stimuli). COX-1 is regarded as a “housekeeping” enzyme responsible for such functions as maintaining gastrointestinal mucosal integrity and regulation of kidney blood flow. COX-2 expression in response to inflammation & mitogens may lead to cancer. COX-2 enhances the formation of prostaglandins that mediate pain & inflammation. The attempts to create drugs that specifically inhibit COX-2 without inhibiting COX-1 (which can result in gastrointestinal bleeding) is based on this simplification[BIOCHEMICAL PHARMACOLOGY 65:153-159 (2003)].

Unlike COXs, which are active in most body cells,lipogenase enzyme is primarily active in cells of the immune system. Lipogenase creates hydroperoxides from polyunsaturated fatty acids by an insertion of molecular oxygen. Both arachidonic acid(omega‚àí6) and EPA(omega‚àí3) can be acted-on by lipoxygenase enzyme, rather than by cyclooxygenase resulting in leucotrienes(LTZs) rather than the prostaglandins(PGZs) & thromboxanes(TXZs) produced by cycloxoygenase. Lipoxygenase produces series4 leucotrienes from arachidonic acid or series5 leucotrienes from EicosaPentoic Acid(EPA). Lipoxygenase is primarily found in granulocytes.HydroxyPeroxyEicosaTetraEnoates(HPETEs) are reactive hydroperoxides which can contribute to cellular damage in atherosclerosis[THE JOURNAL OF CLINICAL INVESTIGATION 111(8):1107-1113(2003)]. HPETEs like other organic hydroperoxides(ROOH) can lead to lipid peroxidation byFenton-like reactions.

Arachidonic Acid conversion to Leukotrienes via HPETEs

Ring Structures

Arachidonic acid oxidized in the membranes of neurons which has been subsequently liberated by phospholipase results in enzymatic products known asisoeicosanoids because they are isomers of normal eicosanoids.Isoprostanes (isomers of cyclooxygenase-derived prostaglandins) and particularlyF₂-isoprostanes (isomers of prostaglandinF_2Œ±) have attracted special interest because they are chemically stable and can be sensitively measured using mass spectrometry. F₂-isoprostanes have been used to quantify lipid peroxidation in atherosclerotic plaques, in the brains ofAlzheimer’s Disease patients and in the urine of smokers & myocardial infarction patients. Analogous F-ring oxidized isomers of DHA breakdown products known asF₄-neuroprostanes have been isolated in elevated quantity in both cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue of Alzheimer’s Disease patients[CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR LIFE SCIENCES 59:808-820 (2002)].

Normal F-Ring Prostaglandin	F2-isoprostanes

Cell membrane enzyme activity is significantly influenced by membrane fatty acid composition. Rats fed unsaturated fats show highersodium-potassium pump activity than rats fed saturated fats[NEUROCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL; Srinivasarao,P; 31(6):789-794 (1997)]. Increasing membrane DHA content is a mechanism for cold adaptation in fish. But the longer lifespan of birds compared to similar-sized mammals is attributed to greater saturated fat content in membranes (lower peroxidizability)[JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY; Hulbert,AJ; 206(Pt14):2303-2311 (2003)].

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VI. FATS FOR IMMUNITY

The eicosanoids produced from arachidonic acid cause a stronger inflammatory response than the eicosanoids from EPA or DGLA. The arachidonic acid products LeukoTrieneB4 (LTB₄) and ProstaGlandinE2 (PGE₂) are powerful promoters of inflammation. LTB₄ is only formed in granulocytes subject to stimuli favoring action by 5-lipoxygenase activating protein[ARCHIVES OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 356(1):71-76 (1998)]. Both PGE₂ & LTB₄ increases tissue swelling (edema) by making the vascular endothelium more leaky. LTB₄ stimulates superoxide production by neutrophils, activates Natural Killer cells and powerfully attracts inflammatory leukocytes. PGE₂ increases sensitivity to pain, raises temperature and increases the formation of the allergic antibody ImmunoglobulinE(IgE)[*17]. Aspirin irreversibly blocks the enzymecyclo-oxygenase, which prevents arachidonic acid from being converted to prostaglandin thereby limiting inflammation and pain. Gamma-tocopherol (the major form ofVitaminE in food, in contrast to alpha-tocopherol, which is the major form of VitaminE in supplement pills) also blocks cyclo-oxygenase and reduces proinflammatory PGE₂ & LTB₄ formation[FASEB JOURNAL 17:816-822 (2003)].

Elevated body temperature, increased sensitivity to pain, inflammation and allergic reactions are important body defense mechanisms. Inflammation reduces the spread of infection. Elevated body temperature can kill bacteria and viruses. Increased sensitivity to pain reduces movement of injured body parts, preventing injury from getting worse. But when taken to an extreme, inflammatory reactions can result in auto-immune disease, septic shock, asthma and even fatal anaphylactic shock. Chronic inflammation of the pancreas, colon and other organs increase the risk ofcancer in those organs. The increasing incidence of allergies and seasonal asthmas in modern society has been attributed to increased levels of the arachidonic acid eicosanoid LTB₄ due to excessively high dietary omega‚àí6 intake relative to omega‚àí3[*18].

Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA) has been shown to be effective against the inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis in a number of studies. Although one might expect that GLA could lead to the formation of arachidonic acid’s pro-inflammatory eicosanoids, there is instead a production of the anti-inflammatory prostaglandin PGE₁ of the 1‚àíseries[*19,*20]. It may be that rheumatoid arthritis patients suffer from impaired function of desaturase enzymes, preventing arachidonic acid formation. In ulcerative colitis, an inflammatory condition in which desaturase enzymes are normal, both omega‚àí3 oils from fish and perilla have been used for treatment[*21].

Feeding laboratory animals diets rich in omega‚àí3 fatty acids (linseed or fish oil) reduces Natural Killer cell and cytotoxic T‚àílymphocyte activity[*22], but stimulates the more antigen-specific immunoglobulins IgM and IgG[*17]. Innate immune response, although closely tied to inflammation can be separated from inflammation to some extent. One experiment showed that both fish oil and safflower oil reduced the secretion of Interleukin-6 (a cytokine that activates lymphocyte immune-cells and increases antibody production), but that only fish oil inhibited the secretion of Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (a cytokine that increases fever, shock and blood vessel permeability)[*23].

As a first-line defense against infection, the inflammatory/innate-immunity response can sometimes mean the difference between life and death. Adding fish oil (which contains both DHA and EPA) to the diet of rats increased the likelihood that the rats would die when subjected to bacterial infection[*24]. Mixtures of DHA and EPA strongly reduce Natural Killer and Lymphocyte Activated cells[*25]. But immune suppression appears to be more due to EPA than to DHA[*22]. In fact, when total fat intake is low, DHA shows no inhibition of immune system function, even though about 9% of DHA is converted back to EPA[*26]. The omega‚àí6 to omega‚àí3 proportions may also determine immune suppression. An experiment, using a mixture of safflower oil and fish oil showed no immunosuppressive effect in rats when the omega‚àí6 to omega‚àí3 ratio was approximately 2‚àíto‚àí1[*23].

Cells of the immune system (like T-Cells, B-Cells and Macrophages) have membranes that are particularly rich in long-chain unsaturated fatty acids (such as arachidonic acid or EPA). Unlike prostaglandins, which are formed from most cells of the body, leukotrienes are made predominantly by polymorphonucleocytic leucocytes, macrophages and mast cells.

Because immune system cells are so rich in arachidonic acid and EPA (and also because of their mobility and functions) immune system cells are more vulnerable tofree-radical oxidation than other cells. The nutrients that most profoundly improve immune function are vitaminC, vitaminE,selenium, glutathione and zinc[*27]. All of these nutrients areantioxidants, although zinc’s effects are more due to direct actions on immune cell function than due to its anti-oxidant properties[*28].VitaminE opposes some, but not all of the increased lipid peroxidation and immune suppression seen in essential fatty acid supplementation[*29]. VitaminE promotes immune function by reducing PGE₂ synthesis and thus increasing T-cell proliferation, IL-2 production and antibody production, while reducing IL-6 production. By scavenging the hydroperoxide necessary for COX activity, VitaminE opposes the increase in PGE₂ formation that is typically seen in aging[AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY; Wu,D; 275(3Pt1):C661-C668 (1998)]. PGE₂ is known to suppress lymphocyte proliferation, to suppress synthesis of chemical factors (lymphokines) influencing the immune system and to contribute to the auto-immune diseases that increase with aging[*30].

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VII. FATS AGAINST CANCER

High fat diets are well-known to be associated with certain kinds of cancers, including breast cancer, in particular[*31]. Although butterfat stimulates breast cancer when compared with a fat-free diet, safflower oil margarine (linoleic acid, an omega‚àí6) has been shown to induce breast cancer much more strongly[*6]. Linoleic acid is the fat that most frequently is associated with cancer, whereas omega‚àí3 fatty acids like DHA and perilla-oil suppress cancer[*32,*33]. It has been theorized that linoleic acid causes cancer by chronic overproduction of the inflammatory arachidonic acid eicosanoids, which stimulate the proliferation of mutated cells[*6]. Omega‚àí3 fatty acids reduce cancer risk by markedly inhibiting Activator Protein1(AP‚àí1), a transcription factor which promotes cancerous proliferation and metastasis. Omega‚àí6 fatty acids promote cancer by blocking omega‚àí3 activity[PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (USA); Liu,G; 98(13): 7510-7515 (2001)].

PGE₂ resulting from COX-2 enzyme is found in high levels in colorectal carcinomas where the prostaglandin promotes growth through transactivation of epithelial growth factor receptor signalling. PGE₂ also induces expression of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor(VEGF) in colon cancer cells, resulting in the neoangiogenesis (new blood vessels) required by growing tumors[JOURNAL OF CLINICAL INVESTIGATION; Williams,CS; 105(11):1589-1594 (2000)]. Nitric oxide is a regulator of COX-2 expression in the colon, and the phytochemicalcurcumin (an inhibitor of inducible nitric oxide synthetase found in curry) has been shown to reduce pre-cancerous colon lesions by 45%[CARCINOGENESIS; Rao,CV; 20(4):641-644 (1999)].

Although too much linoleic acid can increase the risk of cancer, a form of linoleic acid in which the double-bonds are closer together known asConjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) actually reduces cancer risk. CLA has been shown to significantly inhibit prostate cancer proliferation[*34] and breast cancer formation[*35] in experimental animals. Large quantities of CLA are not needed since the maximum anti-cancer effect is seen when CLA is no more than 1% of calories. There is controversy over whether CLA is ananti-oxidant. Some researchers who believe that CLA is not an anti-oxidant believe that CLA’s effects are due to its blockage of arachidonic acid formation[*36,*37]. CLA has also been shown to reduce atherosclerosis in rabbits[*38]. The best dietary sources of CLA are the food products of ruminant animals (ie, animals that “ruminate” their food by chewing a cud, like cows or deer), such as beef, milk, yoghurt and cheese.

For technical details about the nature of cancer (and methods of prevention) see my essayCancer.

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VIII. FATS AGAINST DIABETES AND THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLISM

Alcoholics suffer from disturbances of fat metabolism, notably in the liver. The liver is the most active site of delta-6-desaturase activity in the body. In fact, many (if not most) cells in the body have no delta-6-desaturase enzymes and are dependent upon the liver for omega‚àí3/omega‚àí6 desaturase/elongase products. Neuropathy and other conditions resulting from desaturase dysfunction in alcoholics are benefitted by both evening primrose oil and fish oil in combination[*43]. Arachidonic acid deficiency is the most serious problem for alcoholics, however, so evening primrose oil seems to be the best therapy[*44].

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IX. FATS FOR THE BRAIN

The influence of essential fatty acid supplement on brain membrane content declines with maturity, however. Adult cell membrane content of DHA and arachidonic acid is only slowly altered by diet or supplement. If dietary intake of essential fatty acid is low, the body will sacrifice essential fatty acid content of cell membranes outside the brain before neurons are affected. A study of elderly men, however, showed greater cognitive impairment among those with a history of high dietary linoleic acid compared with controls, whereas those with high fish consumption showed reduced cognitive decline[*57]. One experiment showed promotion of neuron growth by DHA and inhibition by arachidonic acid[*58]. But an experiment on adult mice showed that excessively high supplements of DHA without arachidonic acid supplementation can impair physical and cognitive performance[*59]. Arachidonic acid may facilitate LTP-type learning in the hippocampus of the brain[*51].

Measurements of fatty acid content of brain cell (neuron) membranes show decreased DHA with aging. Since DHA is particularly concentrated in synaptic membranes, lowered DHA levels may contribute to declining brain function. DHA is also reduced when the brains of rats are experimentally exposed to high oxygen levels suggesting that free-radical oxidation is causing the depletion in both cases. VitaminE treatment protected the rats from neuron damage from the oxygen. This suggests that VitaminE may be important for prevention of neurodegeneration in humans[*63]. (For more detail about DHA see my essay DHA for Hearts and Minds).

Arachidonic acid can be released from cell membranes exposed toneurotransmitters, neuromodulators and neurohormones. The release of arachidonic acid can directly modify neuron excitability by binding with hydrophobic binding sites of ion channels or can be metabolized to eicosanoids that ineract with neuronal eicosanoid receptors to have asecond messenger effect.

Arachidonic acid is known toworsen brain damage during stroke and other conditions of oxygen depletion. AlthoughVitaminE reduces the toxic effects of arachidonic acid in hypoxic conditions,N-Acetyl-Cysteine (NAC, a nutrient which increases glutathione synthesis) completely blocks the arachidonic acid toxicity. Because NAC is not an effectiveanti-oxidant against superoxide, the arachidonic acid toxicity must be due to lipid peroxidation[*51].

Since the 1950s it has been believed that schizophrenia is caused by brain disturbances involving the neurotransmitter dopamine. Recently it has been observed that many schizophrenics have reduced levels of DHA and arachidonic acid and a sizable proportion of these patients do not flush red on 200mg doses of niacin. DHA is known to be highly concentrated in synapses, suggesting that reduced sensitivity to dopamine due to low levels of DHA and arachidonic acid in dopamine receptors may be a more fundamental cause of schizophrenia than dopamine deficiency[*64].

As brain cell membranes age, the ratio of cholesterol to phospholipid increases and membrane fluidity decreases. A similar effect is seen in brains which are becoming tolerant to ethyl alcohol (beverage alcohol). Experiments exposing rats to ethyl alcohol showed tissue depletion of DHA and arachidonic acid, particularly in the liver[*65,*66]. Phosphatidylethanolamine in the cerebral cortex gray matter of the brains of alcoholics show lower levels of DHA and arachidonic acid[*67]. Methionine (or S-adenosylmethionine, SAM) has reversed the DHA and arachidonic acid depletion in the liver following alcohol treatment of rats[*66]. Oxidized DHA and arachidonic acid enzyme products (isoprostanes and neuroprostanes) are both markedly eleveated in the cerebrospinal fluid ofAlzheimer’s Disease patients as compared to age-matched controls. Lipid peroxidation would be an expected consequence of inflammatory processes associated with Alzheimer’s Disease, but could also be indicative of oxidation as a cause of the disease.

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X. FATS FOR THE HEART

Oxidative stress is known to contribute to atherosclerosis, but it is usually attributed to oxidation of LDL-cholesterol, causing it to adhere to artery walls. Some oxidative effect is also due to vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation induced by arachidonic acid derived eicosanoids functioning as transcription factors. The arachidonic acid lipoxygenase metabolites 12-HPETE and 15-HPETE act as mitogens by increasing AP-1(ActivatorProtein-1) transcription factor activity[JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY; Rao,GN; 271(44):27760-27764 (1996)].

Fish oil has been shown to lower LDL-cholesterol by about 13%[*70], to lower blood pressure[*71], and to dramatically lower blood triglycerides[*72,*73]. The effect on triglycerides, in particular, appears to be due to EPA and DHA, because flaxseed (ie, linseed oil, which is over 50% alpha-linolenic acid) did not lower triglycerides. More careful analysis has established that DHA alone has no effect on blood triglycerides, but that EPA alone is capable of lowering blood triglycerides by about 30%[*74]. Purified DHA was shown to lower blood pressure and reduce blood viscosity. The evidence indicated that DHA increases red blood cell membrane fluidity, thereby increasing the deformability of the blood cells so that they can move through capillaries more easily and thus lower blood viscosity and blood pressure[*75].

High fasting blood insulin concentrations has been determined to be an independent risk factor for ischemic heart disease[*76]. The fatty acid content of muscle membranes is critical in determining insulin sensitivity. A high-fat diet can increase insulin resistance, but both dietary omega‚àí3 and omega‚àí6 fatty acids can increase membrane fluidity and thereby improve insulin sensitivity[*77].

The protective effect of fish oil against cardiac arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats) has been strikingly illustrated by two similar experiments, one performed on rats[*78] and the other on marmoset monkeys[*79]. Middle-aged animals were fed sheep fat (saturated fat), sunflower seed oil (omega‚àí6) or fish oil (omega‚àí3) for 12 weeks (for rats) or for 24-30 months (for monkeys). With both rats and monkeys arrhythmia was produced in over 40% of the animals fed sheep fat, roughly 10% of the animals fed safflower oil and in none of the animals who were fed fish oil.

Phosphatidylethanolamine from monkey heart tissue showed 5times more (over 25% total) DHA in the fish-oil fed monkeys than in the other two groups. EPA accounted for over 6% of the fatty acid phosphatidylethanolamine of fish-oil fed monkeys, and was undetectable in the other two groups. A similar experiment on rats using purified DHA and purified EPA, rather than fish-oil, indicated that DHA is responsible for most of the anti-arrhythmic effect[*80]. It is the DHA release from membrane breakdown, rather than DHA in the bloodstream, which is protective[*81]. Moreover, DHA in the membrane increases the efficiency of the heart cyclic-AMP (a cell messenger molecule)[*82].

Although most fish oils are high in EPA and DHA, there are some fish oils which are not. Flounder, swordfish and sole are particularly low in EPA and DHA. Fish oils having the highest levels of EPA and DHA include mackerel, herring and salmon. Some fish, such as cod and haddock, store most of their fat in the liver, therefore the liver oils of these fish should be taken rather than the fillet.

Increased fish oil consumption, however, is associated with increased lipid peroxidation in heart, liver and lung tissue moreso than in the brain[*83]. Again, VitaminE has been recommended for those who have a high fish oil consumption to reduce lipid peroxidation[*84]. In some cases, consumption of fish can harmful due to high levels of mercury (for more detail about mercury risk see my essayIs Mercury in Fish a Health Hazard?). Lipid peroxidation of LDL cholesterol is believed to initiate arterial wall injury and facilitate the formation of atherosclerotic foam cells. Leucocytes & endothelial cells may contribute to atherosclerosis through inflammation induced by 5-lipoxygenase;[PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (USA) 100(3):1238-1248 (2003)].

(For more details concerning cardiovascular disease, risk factors and prevention see my essaysSudden Cardiovascular Death andPrevention of Cardiovascular Disease.)

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XI. GETTING THE BEST FAT NUTRITION

Some advocates of “a return to natural levels” of fatty acid intake recommend dietary ratios of 1-to-1. Up until about 200 years ago, the human diet contained much higher levels of omega‚àí3 fatty acids. The meat of wild animals that forage for food is rich in EPA, unlike the meat of domesticated animals that have been fattened with grains. High levels of dietary omega‚àí6 vegetable oils are a modern phenomenon. EPA competes with arachidonic acid for the cyclo-oxygenase enzyme, reducing the production of thromboxaneA2, the most powerful platelet aggregating agent known. Some people feel that restoration of the historic omega‚àí3/omega‚àí6 ratios is a more “natural” way of preventing heart attack than using aspirin to irreversibly inactivate cyclo-oxygenase[*15]. Aspirin, even in normal therapeutic doses, can produce dizziness, migraine headaches, depression, anxiety, and stomach irritation or stomach bleeding[*87].

The high levels of omega‚àí6 fatty acids in modern diets may even adversely affect omega‚àí3 utilization by cellular mechanisms that reduce desaturase formation[*88]. Rats on a perilla oil diet which results in omega‚àí6 to omega‚àí3 ratios of approximately 1-to-4 showed the longest lifespans. Eskimos have low heart and autoimmune disease on a fish oil diet that gives a 1-to-3 ratio[*6]. Concern that the anti-clotting effect of fish oil might lead to increased incidence of stroke are apparently unfounded, since stroke is primarily the result of high blood pressure and weakened blood vessels.

It would seem prudent to reduce fat intake of nonessential fats to as low a quantity as possible, so long as absorption of oil-soluble vitamins is not impaired. Dietary fat could mainly consist of essential fats. The value of EPA or DHA to prevent serious heart problems should be enough to encourage anyone to take an amount of these nutrients up to 1% of total calories. For a person on a 2,500 calorie daily diet, this would mean 5to7.5 grams of essential fatty acids per day with perhaps 500mg each of EPA and DHA. But too much EPA and DHA can be harmful. When fish oil supplies up to 12% of calories, both the brain and the liver show arachidonic acid deficiencies[*48]. The same effect would probably be seen with excessive amounts of other omega‚àí3 supplements, like linseed or perilla oil.

It would be nice to have a single essential fatty acid formulation that optimizes benefits to the heart, the brain and the immune system for people of all ages, but this is probably unrealistic. Since DHA is responsible for most of the omega‚àí3 benefits to the brain and the omega‚àí3 prevention of heart arrhythmia while avoiding most of the immune-system depression due to EPA omega‚àí3 formulations that are higher in DHA rather than EPA should be preferred. For people who dislike fish oil, especially young people with healthy immune systems and functioning desaturase enzymes, perilla oil or linseed oil may be adequate to obtain a better balance between omega‚àí6 and omega‚àí3. Nonetheless, only about a fifth of alpha-linolenic acid is normally converted to DHA and EPA, partially because the body more readily burns unsaturated fats for energy than saturated fats[*6].

But for the very elderly, immune function might be the paramount consideration. Biomarkers of immune function were shown to be a very good predictor of the 2-year survival of 102 elderly people between the ages of 86 and 92[*89]. A normally mild disease can be fatal to a person with a weakened immune system. One lifespan study on rats showed reduced lifespan on rats fed fish oil[*90], possibly due to immune suppression by EPA. But rats are unlike humans in that they rarely die of cardiovascular disease and they have a lower capacity to synthesize the protective eicosanoid Prostacyclin (PCI3) from EPA. Other experiments, on mice, have shown extended lifespan with fish-oil. Fish oil even increased the life-extending benefits of calorie restriction on the mice[*91].

GLA supplements like evening primrose oil, or borage oil, might seem undesirable for normal people because of the danger that they would increase arachidonic acid. But studies have shown an increase in membrane DGLA and series1 eicosanoids, with beneficial anti-inflammatory consequences[*92]. GLA can also lower blood pressure[*93].

To minimize lipid peroxidation, essential fatty acid supplements should be taken with no less than 500mg of VitaminE per day. Both gamma and alpha forms of tocopherol should be included[*94] for effectiveness. VitaminE is an antioxidant which strongly prevents membrane peroxidation. The combination of VitaminE and omega‚àí3 fatty acid can reduce cancer risk while protecting heart cell membranes, brain cell membranes, immune-cell membranes and the receptor membranes that allow hormones to act. VitaminE can protect essential fatty acids from lipid peroxidation in capsules and in the bloodstream, as well as in cell membranes. But for smokers, vitaminE may not be adequate to reduce oxidation of fish oil in LDL-cholesterol, and some medical authorities have cautioned against too much fish oil consumption by smokers[*95].

Ideally, essential fatty acids and VitaminE should be formulated together in an air-tight capsule. VitaminC helps maintain the antioxidant capabilities of VitaminE. Boosting glutathione levels with N-acetyl-cysteine(NAC) and the use of other antioxidant nutrients can further protect against lipid peroxidation of essential fats. Glutathione not only regenerates both VitaminE and VitaminC that has been oxidized, it prevents formation of deadly hydroxyl free-radicals.

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XII. CONCLUSIONS

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